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* 高雄縣鄉士語言布農語 - 提供高雄縣鄉士語言布農語教材

* 布農族網路社群---台灣原住民數位博物館--部落網站社群系統

* 布農族服飾

* 布農族：放黑熊回家 by 自由時報

 

 

布農族神話與傳說 by 者達西烏拉彎‧畢馬(漢名：田哲益)

 

 

 

BUNUN

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

 

The Bunun (布農), also historically known as the Vonum (The Island of Formosa Past and Present, James W. Davidson - e-book), are a tribe of Taiwanese aborigines and are best-known for their sophisticated polyphonic vocal music. They speak the Bunun language. Unlike other aboriginal tribes in Taiwan, the Bunun are widely dispersed across the island. In the year 2000 the Bunun numbered 41,038. This was approximately 10% of Taiwan's total indigenous population, making them the fourth-largest tribal group. They have five distinct sub-tribes: the Takbunuaz, the Takituduh, the Takibaka, the Takivatan, and the Isbukun.

 

History

Until the coming of the Christian missionaries in the beginning of the 20th century, the Bunun were known to be fierce warriors and headhunters. The Bunun were one of the "high-mountain tribes" (along with the Atayal and the Taroko) who traditionally lived in small family units in Taiwan's Central Mountain Range and were hostile to all outsiders, whether they be Chinese immigrants or surrounding aboriginal tribes. Whereas most other aborigines were quite sedentary and tended to live in lower areas, the Bunun, along with the Atayal and Taroko were constantly on the move in Taiwan's Central Mountain Range, looking for new hunting grounds and practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. Their staple foods were millet, yam, and game.

During the Japanese rule (1895-1945), the Bunun were among the last tribes to be "pacified" by the Japanese government in residence. After an initial period of fierce resistance, they were forced to move down from the mountains and concentrated into a number of lowland villages that were spread across the Island. As a result, the family unit became less important and life centred around individual village units. The Japanese government restricted hunting practices (mainly to control the use of firearms) and introduced wet rice cultivation. Many Bunun were recruited as local policemen and during WWII, the Japanese army had Bunun regiments.

Throughout the 20th century, several waves of missionaries of various denominations spread across Taiwan. They were particularly successful with the aboriginal inhabitants of the island and after the last missionary wave in the 1940s, that originated in Japan, a majority of aborigines was converted to Christianity. Today, most Bunun either belong to the Catholic Church or to the local Presbyterian Church.

After the arrival of the Chinese Nationalist Kuomintang in October 1945, difficult days began for the aboriginal population. The "one language, one culture" policy of the Nationalist government prohibited to use of any language other than Mandarin Chinese, for official use as well as in daily life, and indigenous cultures were systematically discriminated against and encouraged to assimilate in the mainstream. Bunun culture was eroded by the joined pressure of their new faith and of the government's policy of sinification. The situation improved only recently, when after two decades of democratic reforms, the DPP came to power after the 2000 elections.

 

The Bunun language (布農語) is spoken by the Bunun people of Taiwan. It belongs to the Formosan languages, a subgroup of the Austronesian language family, and is subdivided in five dialects: Isbukun, Takbunuaz, Takivatan, Takibaka and Takituduh. Isbukun, the dominant dialect, is mainly spoken in the south of Taiwan. Takbunuaz and Takivatan are mainly spoken in the center of the country. Takibaka en Takituduh both are northern dialects. A sixth dialect, Takipulan, went extinct in the 1970s.

The Saaroa and Kanakanabu, two smaller minority groups who share their territory with an Isbukun Bunun group, have also adopted Bunun as their vernacular.

 

Classification of Austronesian Languages

• Tsouic
  • Tsou
  • Saaroa
  • Kanakanabu
• Western Plains
  • Thao (AKA Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects)
  • Central Western Plains
    • Babuza (Taokas, Poavosa dialects)
    • Popora-Hoanya (Popora, Hoanya dialects)
• Northwest Formosan
  • Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects)
  • Pazeh (AKA Kulun)
• Atayalic
  • Atayal
  • Seediq (AKA Truku, Taroko)
• East Formosan
  • Northern (Kavalanic)
    • Basai (Trobiawan, Linaw-Qauqaul dialects)
    • Kavalan
    • Ketagalan
  • Central (Ami)
    • Nataoran (North Amis)
    • Amis
  • Siraya
  • Malayo-Polynesian
• Bunun
• Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent)
• Puyuma
• Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa)

 

 

Bunun Culture

According to Bunun legend, in times long past, two suns shone down upon the earth and made it unbearably hot. A father and a son endured numerous hardships and finally shot down one of the suns, which then became the moon. In its wrath, the moon demanded that father and son would return to their own people to tell them that they henceforth had to obey three commandments or face annihilation. The first was that they had to constantly observe the waxing and waning of the moon and conduct all rituals and work according to its rhythm. The second commandment stated that all Bunun had to conduct rituals throughout their lives to honor the spirits of heaven and earth. The third commandment told them of forbidden behaviours, and forced them to become an orderly and peaceful tribe.

A variant of the story tells that long, long ago, a mother and father went out working in the field and took their newly-born son with them. While working, they put the child in a basket at the side of the field, and for a whole day he lay in the unbearable heat of the two suns. When the parents returned in the late afternoon, they found that their son had completely dried up and turned into a black lizard. Stricken by grief, the father took his bow and shot down one of the suns.

This story illustrates the importance of the sky in traditional Bunun animist religion. The Bunun assumed that the world in which they lived were full of supernatural beings (qanitu) that were often associated with particular places (trees, rocks, etc.). An important locus of supernatural power was the sky (dihanin/diqanin). All supernatural forces seem to have had a fairly abstract character and it is therefore not really clear whether the sky was a god or just a place in which all kinds of spirits lived.

It is certain, however, that the moon was considered to be one of the major spirits, and almost all activities in daily life had to be aligned with the lunar calendar. This could go very far, for instance, in a certain lunar month it was forbidden for women to wash themselves. The Bunun are the only aboriginal tribe in Taiwan that developed a primitive form of writing to record lunar cycles and their relationship to important events such as the harvest or the slaughter of pigs.

The prescriptions related to the lunar calendar are part of a larger system of prescriptions and taboos that used to govern all aspects of Bunun life. Many of these had a ritualistic character and all were part of an age-based pecking order where an absolute obedience to one's elders was demanded. For instance, in order to determine whether a man could go hunting, he had to wait till one of the elders had had a prophetic dream (matibahi). If the dream was good, he could go out hunting. A bad dream indicated that great mishap would befall the hunter if he would go in the woods, and the elders would forbid him to go. Most of these rules got into disuse after the coming of Christianity (which branded them as superstition), but present-day Bunun society has still retained a number of social rituals and still imposes a strong obligation on children to behave in a respectful and obedient way towards anyone that is older than themselves.

 

 

Ear Festival

The Ear Festival (打耳祭) is the rite of passage ceremony in Bunun culture. The festival is usually between March and April. Before the festival, every adult male ascends the mountain to hunt. After successful hunting, the men hang the carcasses from wooden frames or branches so that the boys can shoot the dead animals. The teenagers accompany their fathers or brothers to learn how to shoot. After this ritual, the participating boys are considered adults. They can use the skills learned in the festival to excel at hunting like their fathers and older brothers. The meaning of this festival is to respect the hunter heroes. Females are generally prohibited at the Ear Festival, especially during the hunting ear ceremony, barbecue and wine ceremony.

Why should we use the deer’s ear？ We use the deer’s ear because deer run very fast and deer's ear is very sensitive and hard to shoot. If you can shoot the deer’s ear, it means you have a very good hunting skill.

Nowadays, lifestyle changes in Burun, the Ear festival became one of the performances in Burun. Although we can not follow the ancestor to have this festival as before, we still can know the spirit of the Burun from the performance. Then, let the spirit continue to the future. The spirit never disappears.

* 三民鄉布農族打耳祭

 

 

Bunun Music

Bunun Music: Unlike the other indigenous peoples of Taiwan, the Bunun have very little dance music. The best-studied element of traditional Bunun music is improvised polyphonic song. Folk instruments include pestles, five-stringed zithers and the Jew's harp.

The Pasibutbut is a Bunun sacred song, sung polyphonically in eight-part harmony.

In modern times, David Darling, an American cellist, created a project to combine cello and Bunun traditional music, resulting in an album titled Mihumisang. The Bunun Cultural and Educational Foundation, founded in 1995, was the first organization established to help promote and sustain Taiwanese aboriginal culture.

* Music of the Bunun, Taiwanese Aboriginals by A. Romero

* Videos:

• 美麗島

• Polyphonic Chant

• 布農部落的感動

 

Polyphony

In music, polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony).

Within the context of Western music tradition the term is usually used in reference to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as the fugue which might be called polyphonic are usually described instead as contrapuntal. Also, as opposed to the species terminology of counterpoint, polyphony was generally either "pitch-against-pitch" / "point-against-point" or "sustained-pitch" in one part with melismas of varying lengths in another (van der Werf, 1997). In all cases the conception was likely what Margaret Bent (1999) calls "dyadic counterpoint", with each part being written generally against one other part, with all parts modified if needed in the end. This point-against-point conception is opposed to "successive composition", where voices were written in an order with each new voice fitting into the whole so far constructed, which was previously assumed.

 

* Sound of Nature: Bunun tribe’s “Pasibutbut,” Prayer for a Rich Millet Harvest by culture.tw

Excerpt: The uniqueness of the “Prayer for the Millet Harvest” has nothing to do with the song’s lyrics or rhythm, but rather in its distinctive eight-part harmonic singing.

The late Dr. Lu Pin-Chuan who specialized in Taiwan’s aboriginal music once called “Pasibutbut” “a revolutionary way of singing… an unprecedented and unimaginable phenomenon in folk music around the world.”

Musicologists at that time were equally impressed to find such a sophisticated polyphonic harmony system among an ancient tribe as the Bunun’s eight-part harmonic singing chorus, ultimately changing the early concept that music derives from one note, then two notes and so on, eventually reaching complex harmonies.

One legend says that this particular song was created in ancient times when a Bunun was inspired by the sound of a rushing waterfall. Another version indicates that it was the sound of humming bees that gave birth to the “Pasibutbut.”

 

* Videos: Pasibutbut, the Holy Song of Bunun, Humankind, Bunun Men's Choir: Posibutbut

 

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Isibukun Hunters and Corn

According to Masagseg Jingror: "Isibukun 施武郡 Bunun grow grain crops and sweet potatoes as their main food. Corn and millet are the common grains which they grow. Later the Japanese introduced rice cultivation to them, and rice became a popular food among them. Shown in the picture is corn-harvesting." (Tung 1996, p. 247).

 

 

Millet

The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult production environments such as those at risk of drought. They have been in cultivation in East Asia for the last 10,000 years.

Specialized archaeologists called palaeoethnobotanists, relying on data such as the relative abundance of charred grains found in archaeological sites, hypothesize that the cultivation of millets was of greater prevalence in prehistory than rice, especially in northern China and Korea. It was millets, rather than rice, that formed important parts of the prehistoric diet in Chinese Neolithic and Korean Mumun societies. Broomcorn (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. For example, some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan (north) and Hemudu (south). Cishan dates for common millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 8300–6700 BC in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation. Evidence at Chishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 6500 BC. A 4,000-year-old well-preserved bowl containing well-preserved noodles made from foxtail millet and broomcorn millet was found at the Lajia archaeological site in China.

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (c. 3500–2000 BC) (Crawford 1992; Crawford and Lee 2003). Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multi-cropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500–300 BC) in Korea (Crawford and Lee 2003). Millets and their wild ancestors such as barnyard grass and panic grass were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period some time after 4000 BC (Crawford 1983, 1992).

Millet made its way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC. The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.

Millet porridge is a traditional food in both Russian and Chinese сuisines. In Russia it is eaten sweet (with milk and sugar added at the end of cooking process) or savoury with meat or vegetable stews. In China it is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans, sweet potato, and / or various types of squash.

People with coeliac disease can replace certain gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.

 

 

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Migration Hypothesis (Middle Dawenkou Culture, Shandong)

 

 

Sweet Potato

The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Convolvulaceae. Amongst the approximately 50 genera and more than 1,000 species of this family, only I. batatas is a crop plant whose large, starchy, sweet tasting tuberous roots are an important root vegetable (Purseglove, 1991; Woolfe, 1992). The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as greens. The sweet potato is only distantly related to the potato (Solanum tuberosum). It is commonly called a yam in parts of North America, although it is not even distantly related to the other plant widely known as a yam (in the Dioscoreaceae family), which is native to Africa and Asia.

The genus Ipomoea that contains the sweet potato also includes several garden flowers called morning glories, though that term is not usually extended to Ipomoea batatas. Some cultivars of Ipomoea batatas are grown as ornamental plants.

Sweet potatoes are native to the tropical parts of South America, and were domesticated there at least 5000 years ago.

Austin (1988) postulated that the centre of origin of I. batatas was between the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico and the mouth of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The 'cultigen' had most likely been spread by local people to the Caribbean and South America by 2500 BC. Zhang et al. (1998) provided strong supporting evidence that the geographical zone postulated by Austin is the primary centre of diversity. The much lower molecular diversity found in Peru-Ecuador suggests that this region be considered as secondary centre of sweet potato diversity.

The sweet potato was also grown before western exploration in Polynesia, where it is known as the kumara. Sweet potato has been radiocarbon-dated in the Cook Islands to 1000 AD, and current thinking is that it was brought to central Polynesia circa 700 AD, possibly by Polynesians who had traveled to South America and back, and spread across Polynesia to Hawaii and New Zealand from there. It is possible, however, that South Americans brought it to the Pacific. The theory that the plant could spread by floating seeds across the ocean is not supported by evidence. Another point is that the sweet potato in Polynesia is the cultivated Ipomoea batatas, which is generally spread by vine cuttings, and not by seeds.

Sweet potatoes are now cultivated throughout tropical and warm temperate regions wherever there is sufficient water to support their growth.

 

 

Corn

Maize (Zea mays L. ssp. mays; also known in some countries as corn), is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica and subsequently spread throughout the American continents. After European contact with the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, maize spread to the rest of the world.

The domestication of maize is of particular interest to researchers — archaeologists, geneticists, ethnobotanists, geographers, etc. The process is thought by some to have started 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. Recent genetic evidence suggests that maize domestication occurred 9,000 years ago in central Mexico, perhaps in the highlands between Oaxaca and Jalisco. More recent evidence now points to the lowlands of the Balsas River valley. The crop wild relative teosinte most similar to modern maize grows in the area of the Balsas River. Archaeological remains of early maize ears, found at Guila Naquitz Cave in the Oaxaca Valley, date back roughly 6,250 years; the oldest ears from caves near Tehuacan, Puebla, date ca. 2750 BC. Little change occurred in ear form until ca. 1100 BC when great changes appeared in ears from Mexican caves: maize diversity rapidly increased and archaeological teosinte was first deposited.

Perhaps as early as 1500 BC, maize began to spread widely and rapidly. As it was introduced to new cultures, new uses were developed and new varieties selected to better serve in those preparations. Maize was the staple food, or a major staple, of most pre-Columbian North American, Mesoamerican, South American, and Caribbean cultures. The Mesoamerican civilization was strengthened upon the field crop of maize; through harvesting it, its religious and spiritual importance and how it impacted their diet. Maize formed the Mesoamerican people’s identity. During the 1st millennium AD, maize cultivation spread from Mexico into the U.S. Southwest and a millennium later into U.S. Northeast and southeastern Canada, transforming the landscape as Native Americans cleared large forest and grassland areas for the new crop.

 

 

Tobacco

Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide, and in the form of nicotine tartrate it is used in some medicines. In consumption it most commonly appears in the forms of smoking, chewing, snuffing, or dipping tobacco, or snus. Tobacco has long been in use as an entheogen in the Americas. However, upon the arrival of Europeans in North America, it quickly became popularized as a trade item and as a recreational drug.

Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas when European settlers arrived and introduced the practice to Europe, where it became popular. At high doses, tobacco can become hallucinogenic; accordingly, Native Americans never used the drug recreationally. Instead, it was often consumed as an entheogen; among some tribes, this was done only by experienced shamans or medicine men. Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in pipes, either in defined ceremonies that were considered sacred, or to seal a bargain, and they would smoke it at such occasions in all stages of life, even in childhood. It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to heaven.

 

 

* Century-long Gazes Invite New Perspectives by  Tien-ying Hsu

Excerpt: Not only did the aborigines hunt animals to live on, they also hunted out elements of foreign cultures for pleasure, such as smoking. Tobacco crops are believed to have arrived in Taiwan either from the Philippines, or China, or along with the Dutch explorers in the 17th century. When they saw foreigners smoking, the aborigines were at first amazed at how people could “spit out fire and smoke.” But some of the aborigines, such as the Ami and Sedeq tribes, quickly picked up the dubious habit themselves, having learnt how to grow and harvest tobacco. The Paiwan and Bunun people even carved out wooden pipes in the shapes of little human figures, fish or goats, adding fun to these commonly used items.

 

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Bunun Men, Women, and Children

(Image from Travel to Taiwan)

The Bunun are a Taiwanese aborigine tribe, known for their sophisticated polyphonic vocal music. They speak Bunun language and are widely dispersed across the island, unlike the other aboriginal tribes in Taiwan. They have 5 distinct sub-tribes, the Takbunuaz, the Takibaka, the Isbukun, the Takivatan, and the Takituduh. Present day Bunun still live in village units, but unfortunately many of the younger generations are drawn to the big cities searching for jobs.

 

 

Images from

Bunun Couple

 

Bunun Archer

 

 

Images from The Gerald Warner Taiwan Image Collection

Bunun Women Playing Jew's Harps

Unlike the other indigenous peoples of Taiwan, the Bunun have very little dance music. The best-studied element of traditional Bunun music is improvised polyphonic song. Folk instruments include pestles, five-stringed zithers, the Jew's harp and mouth bow.

 

Bunun Man Playing a Mouth Bow

 

Bunun Woman Weaving

 

Bunun Man with a Pipe

 

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* Ancient DNA Sequence Analysis of Human Remains Unearthed from Wushantou Archaeological Site, Tainan by Cheng Hsuan-yi

Abstract: The purpose of this research is to study the genetic relationships among ancient Wushantou population and modern Taiwan aboriginal population as well as the origin and dispersal of Austronesians. Ancient DNA was extracted from the human remains excavated from the Wushantou site in Tainan, which was 2,500-2,800 years before the present. Ancient DNA was analyzed by sequencing of the hypervariable region1 (HV1) of mitochondrial dna (mtDNA). Ancient DNA haplogroups were characteristic of Taiwan aboriginal population. Comparison with modern Taiwan aboriginal revealed that the closest genetic relatedness is between the ancient population and Bunun tribe. Besides, compared with published data, we only can find same haplogroups with ancient population in Sino-Tibetan populations of China. And this indicates that Austronesians were possibly lived in Mainland China.

 

 

 

Excerpt:

 

 

代表還原燒黑陶文化，顯示烏山頭史前人類有著高超的燒陶技術

The Tahu Culture (大湖文化) was an archaeological culture in southern Taiwan. It distributed around the Tainan-Kaohsiung region. The culture was one of the late Neolithic cultures of Taiwan island. A set of several archaeological sites formed the culture, such as the Tahu Site (大湖遺址), Fengpitou Site (鳳鼻頭遺址) and Wushantou Site (烏山頭遺址). These sites had been excavated out many bone tools, potteries or middens.

 

 

Late Neolithic Cultures in Taiwan

(map by Luuva)

The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in the Middle East that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals.

Neolithic culture began in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,500–9500 BC or 12,000-9500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 9500–9000 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 8000 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.

South and East Asia: The oldest Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh from 7000 BC. It lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia."

One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC. Recently another site near the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BC for its Neolithic levels. A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BC and 9000 BC associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia.

In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu.

In East Asia, the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC.

 

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* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

Abstract: This study is focused on Central area of Taiwan and based on three important Iron Age plains and coastal archaeological sites-Fan-Zai-Uan (番仔園), Lu-Liao (鹿寮) and Hui-Lai (惠來), dating between 2000 and 400 B.P. This period is so called “Iron Age”. Mitochondrial DNA extracted from human remains of these three sites will tell us the genetic relation between the Iron Age people and modern aboriginal populations of Taiwan. Combing other pertinent researches of this subject, we can delineate the possible migration route of Iron Age people. The results of ancient DNAs（aDNAs）indicate that Iron Age people in Central Taiwan have genetic affinities with some modern aboriginal populations. The haplogroups of aDNAs show that their maternal origin might be the mainland of Asia.

Based on haplotyes shared with modern aboriginal populations, Fan-Zai-Yuan sample is closely related to Atayal ethnic group. Atayal came from mountain area of central Taiwan. The haplotype of Fan-Zai-Yuan sample possibly has a connection with Da-Ma-Lin archaeological site, which is located in the central mountain area and affected by cultures from plains. Lu-Liao sample is close to Bunun ethnic group. Lu-Liao site is where Papora used to live. A linguistic study suggests that Papora might come from the Zhuo-Shui river, which is a possible homeland of Luan community of Bunun. The Hui-Lai sample shares no haplotyes with any modern aboriginal populations. The haplogourp is also hardly found in modern Austronesian, possibly because lots of populations lived here and had a large gene pool.

Recent genetic researches show that modern aboriginal populations are heterogenous because of geographic reasons. However, people who live in plains interacted frequently and belonged to the same culture system for a long time. Based on the results of aDNAs analysis, the Iron Age people arrived lowland central Taiwan as early as part of modern indigenous people who live in mountain area today. Moreover, people who live in plains were more likely to be affected by other cultures. Genetically speaking, their population structures tend to be more diverse.

 

 

Green Glass Bead from the Site of Luliao (photo from Digital Taiwan)

 

Iron knife from the Lu-Liao Site (photo from The Digital Museum of Nature and Culture)

 

 

Iron Age

In archaeology, the Iron Age is the prehistoric period in any area during which cutting tools and weapons were mainly made of iron or steel. The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.

The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system for classifying prehistoric societies, preceded by the Bronze Age and the Stone Age. Its dates and context vary depending on the geographical region. The Iron Age in each area ends with the beginning of the historical period, i.e. the local production of ample written sources.

Indian Subcontinent: Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800 BC – 1200 BC. Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an iron age burial site Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be earlier.

The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. An iron working centre in east India is dated to the first millennium BC.

China: In 1972, near the city of Gaocheng (藁城) in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province), an iron-bladed bronze tomahawk (铁刃青铜钺) dating back to the 14th century BC was excavated. After a scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from meteoric siderite. The Iron Age in East Asia began, however, when iron objects began to appear in present-day Xinjiang between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. This was soon followed by the development of iron metallurgy on the Manchurian plain by the 9th century BC. Iron metallurgy reached the Yangzi Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid to late Warring States period (from about 350 BC).

The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments and the sophisticated cast.

An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings.

Korea: Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area in the fourth century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but before the Western Han Dynasty began. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period.

Japan: The Yayoi period (弥生時代, Yayoi-jidai) is an era in the history of Japan from about 500 BC to AD 300. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of an intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period (14,000 BC to 500 BC) and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū.

The succeeding Kofun period (古墳時代, Kofun-jidai) lasts from around 250 to 538. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period. Iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during this era or the late Yayoi period, most likely through contacts with the Korean Peninsula and China.

 

 

* The Biological Evidence of the San-pau-chi People and Their Affinities by Hsiu-Man Lin

Abstract: In Taiwan, the beginning of the manufacture and use of iron began around the birth of Christ (e.g., Liu 1992, 1993, Tsang 2000). During the prehistoric Iron Age, regional cultures continued to flourish all over Taiwan, including the Shih-San-Hang culture in the north (e.g., Chang 1993, Huang 1994, Lin Jia-Wei 1996, Lin Hsiu-Man 1997, Liu Chin-Hsin 2005, Liu Yi-Chang 1992, Peitrusewsky et al. 2001, Tsang and Liu 2001a, Tsang et al. 2001, Yang 1961), the Fan-Tsu-Yuan and Ta-Chiu-Yuan cultures in the west-central region (e.g., Chiu 1991, Sun 1962), the Niao-Sung culture in the south (e.g., Chen 1977, Huang 1982, Wu and Lee 1979), and the Chi-Pu culture in the east (e.g., Guo 2005). A newly excavated site at Kuei-Shan in the Pingtung Prefecture reveals unique features in comparison with aforementioned cultures stepping into the Iron Age and may represent a culture of its own (e.g., Huang et al. 1987, Li Kuang-Chou et al. 1985, Sun et al. 1992).

 

* Three Case Studies for mtDNA Analysis of Iron Age People in Central Taiwan by Ling-Dai Yen

* Haplogroup M (mtDNA), Shandong, Liaoning, Xinjiang, Qinghai

 

 

* 台中惠來人種 或來自亞洲北部 by 郝雪卿

Excerpt: 臺灣國立自然科學博物館人類學組，對於台中市惠來遺址的出土人骨及文物研究有新發現，透過ＤＮＡ實驗結果顯示，惠來人的母系血緣可能來自亞洲北部，而從鹿寮遺址玻璃的成份分析，更發現其製作技術與當時台灣和中國大陸及東南亞的貿易往來有密切關連。

科博館人類組主任何傳坤今天表示，從出土人骨或牙齒抽取ＤＮＡ與現代人進行比對，可以一窺過去族群的遷移狀況，對歷史問題也能有不同的啟示 ....

何傳坤也從台中市惠來遺址、台中縣鹿寮遺址及南勢坑遺址所出土的許多玻璃珠成份進行分析，發現這些玻璃珠的來源相當複雜，其中的鈉鈣玻璃可能來自印度 (Indian glass)，另外的高鉛矽酸鹽玻璃和鉀鉛矽酸鹽玻璃，則是中國古代製造玻璃 (ancient Chinese Glass) 的主要特徵。從玻璃珠的來源研判，台灣當時已有密切的海外貿易。

 

 

惠來遺址

惠來遺址位於台中市七期重劃區，最早於台中市西屯區惠來路與市政路附近的台中衣蝶百貨大樓興建工程基地發現，因位於西屯區惠來里行政轄區內，故命名為「惠來里遺址」或「惠來遺址」。該遺址最早的文化層可推到史前繩紋時代，最晚的文化層為清代晚年的漢人文化層，涵括將近四千年的時間範圍，初步估計的分佈範圍至少在15萬平方公尺以上，將是台灣中部考古史上的重大發現，目前該遺址仍未大規模挖掘。

2002年5月18日，東海大學生物系學生陳聖明在台中衣蝶百貨大樓興建工程基地西側斷面取出一塊陶片，交給國立自然科學博物館人類學組主任何傳坤鑑定，證實是史前繩紋陶。隔日陳聖明與科博館人類學組助理研究員屈慧麗到該工程基地復勘，再次確認此一史前繩紋陶文化層，確定了惠來遺址的存在。

惠來遺址目前已出土的古物來自四個文化層，由古至今分別為牛罵頭文化層、營埔文化層、番仔園文化層以及漢人文化層，分佈的年代約距今一百年到三千六百年間，至今仍未見平埔族文化遺留。目前發現遺物的範圍在惠中路、市政南二路、黎明路、市政北六路所圍起的區域間，初步估計面積至少150,000平方公尺。

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

* Taiwan Aboriginals and Peoples of the Pacific-Asia Region: Multivariate craniometric comparisons by M. Pietrusewsky, et al.

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in Five Male Taiwan Aboriginal Group

 

Plot of 55 Male Groups Means on the First Two Canonical Variates Using 29 Cranial Measurements

 

Diagram of Relationship Based on a Cluster Analysis (UPGMA) of Mahalanobis' Generalized Distances Using 29 Cranial Measurements Recorded in 55 Male Groups

 

 

* mtDNA Analysis of Bunun Remains Stored in the National Taiwan University by Shinoda Ken-ichi

Abstract: The Bunun tribe is one of the aboriginal Taiwanese populations living in the central mountain area of Taiwan. In this study, we analyzed the sequence variability of hypervariable region I and II of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in order to investigate the relationships between modern and historical Bunun populations. mtDNA sequences were retrieved from 25 of 34 samples that were obtained from the historical Bunun skeletal remains stored in National Taiwan University. In combination with the mtDNA data of 8 extant Taiwan aboriginal populations, we carried out phylogenetic analysis based on haplogroup frequency data. The results show that the genetic structure of the historical Bunun population is a complex matriline and that these samples share the same haplogroup with the extant Bunun population. Analysis of the genetic composition of the aboriginal populations also reveals an important ethnic heterogeneity of the present aboriginal Taiwanese. Analysis of genetic distances based on haplogroup frequencies revealed 2 distinct clusters composed of northern and central mountain groups (Atayal, Saistat, and Bunun) and east coast and southern mountain groups (Paiwan, Rukai, Amis, and Yami). The mtDNA haplogroups in the Taiwan aboriginal populations were found to be different from those in the Chinese and Taiwan-Han population; therefore, these Taiwan aboriginal haplogroups might have stemmed from the gene pool of the initial late Pleistocene settlers. Genetic diversity among the aboriginal populations may be attributed to the prolonged isolation and random genetic drift after the single introduction of all mtDNA haplogroups into Taiwan. Our experiments also indicate the availability of the past skeletal remains for verifying the hypotheses formulated on the basis of genetic data derived from the present populations.

 

 

* Polynesian Origins: Insights from the Y chromosome by Bing Su, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

Populations	N	H1	H2	H3	H4	H5	H6	H7	H8	H9	H10	H11	H12	H14	H16	H17
Bunun	9									11.1	66.7
Atayal	24						29.2	4.2	4.2	54.2	8.3
Yami	8									25.0		75
Paiwan	11								18.2	54.5	27.3
Ami	6									100.0

 

The Phylogeny of Y-chromosome Haplotypes in East Asians (H1-H17) from Natives or Immigrants: Modern human origin in east Asia by Li Jin and Bing Su

 

 

* Recent Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Indigenous Populations by Shu-Juo Chen, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

Populations	N	H1	H2	H3	H4	H5	H6	H7	H8	H9	H10	H11	H12	H14	H16	H17
Bunun	17					5.9				17.6	58.8		17.6
Atayal	22						4.5			95.5
Yami	7							14.3		71.4	14.3
Paiwan	22								9.1	63.6	27.3
Ami	19							31.6	5.3	36.8	26.3
Puyuma	11							9.1		72.7	9.1			9.1
Tsou	18							5.6		88.9	5.6
Rukai	11									81.8	18.2
Saisiat	11							27.3		45.5	9.1	9.1	9.1
Thao	11					9.1		9.1		72.7	9.1
Pazah	11					18.2		27.3		18.2	36.4

 

 

Markers in Su's Nomenclature System from A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human
Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

Name	Derived state at	Ancestral state at	Name by lineage
H5	M9	M122, M119, M95, M45, M5	K*(xO3,O1,O2a,P,M)
H6	M122	M7, M134	O3*(xO3d, O3e)
H7	M7		O3d
H8	M134		O3e
H9	M119	M50	O1*(xO1b)
H10	M50		O1b
H11	M95	M88	O2a*
H12	M88		O2a1
H14	M45	M120, M3, M17	P*(xQ1,Q3,R1a1)

 

 

Haplogroup K (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup K (M9) is a Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. This haplogroup is a descendant of Haplogroup IJK. Its major descendant haplogroups are L (M20), M (P256), NO (M214) (plus NO's descendants N and O), P (M45) (plus P's descendants Q and R), S (M230), and T (M70). Haplogroups K1, K2, K3 and K4 are found only at low frequency in South Asia, the Malay Archipelago, Oceania, and Australia.

Origins: Y-DNA haplogroup K is an old lineage established approximately 40,000 years ago whose origins were probably in southwestern Asia. At present this group contains two distinct classes of subgroups: (1) major groups L to T (refer to the main tree at Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree) and (2) minor groups K* and K1 to K4 which do not have any of the SNPs defining the major groups. These groups are found at low frequencies in various parts of Africa, Eurasia, Australia and the South Pacific.

Subgroups: The subclades of Haplogroup K with their defining mutation, according to Karafet et al. (2008) (abbreviated for clarity to a maximum of five steps away from the root of Haplogroup K):

Note The 2008 paper made a number of changes compared to the previous 2006 ISOGG tree. The former subgroups K2 and K5 were renamed Haplogroups T and S; the old subgroups K1 and K7 were re-assigned as new subgroups M2 and M3 of a redefined Haplogroup M; and the former subgroups K3, K4 and K6 were renamed to new K1, K2 and K3.

• K (M9) Typical of populations of northern Eurasia, eastern Eurasia, Melanesia, and the Americas, with a moderate distribution throughout Southwest Asia, northern Africa, and Oceania
  • K*
  • K1 (M147) Found at low frequencies in South Asia
  • K2 (P60)
  • K3 (P79) Found in Melanesia
  • K4 (P261, P263)

 

 

* An Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Aborigines Using Y-Chromosome-Specific Microsatellite Variation by 朱家琳

Abstract: This study analyzed the genetic variation of seven Y-chromosomal microsatellite loci (DYS19, DYS388, DYS389, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392 and DYS393) of 240 unrelated male individuals from eight Taiwan aboriginal populations (Atayal, Amis, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat and Tsou) to investigate genetic affinities among these populations and their population history. A total of 79 different haplotypes among 240 males were observed in the study, of which 51 (65%) were each found in a single male only, and 13 (16%) were shared between populations. Analysis of gene diversity indicated that several studied populations have experienced substantial genetic isolation with a reduction in male effective sizes, or have suffered bottlenecks in the past (e.g. Paiwan, Bunun, Tsou and Atayal). All the haplotypes were divided into three main subgroups based on stepwise mutation model. Furthermore, the studied populations were categorized by their predominant haplotypes. According to their haplotype distributions, these eight populations were divided into four groups: (1) Paiwan, Rukai and Puyuma (2) Atayal, Bunun and Tsou (3) Amis and (4) Saisiat. st statistics identified close genetic affinities among the populations in group 1. On the other hand, that the allelic and haplotype distributions of the populations in group 2 were distinct from each other, which suggested that gene flow among these neighboring populations were limited. It is not easy to analyze the genetic variation of Saisiat and Amis because of their complex haplotype distributions. The special allelic distribution of Amis might result from more than one bottleneck occurred in the past or genetic admixture of more than one populations.

 

 

* A Comparative Study of Sakizaya and Amis in Hualien by Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Analysis by Li-huang Tsai

NJ Tree

 

UPGMA Tree

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan: Implications for the population history of aboriginal Taiwanese by A. Tajima, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms in the D-loop region and the intergenic COII/tRNA(Lys) 9-bp deletion were examined in 180 individuals from all nine aboriginal Taiwanese groups: Atayal, Saisiat, Bunun, Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami. A comparison of 563-bp sequences showed that there were 61 different sequence types, of which 42 types were specific to respective aboriginal groups. D-loop sequence variation and phylogenetic analysis enabled the 180 aboriginal lineages to be classified into eight monophyletic clusters (designated C1-C8). Phylogeographic analysis revealed that two (C2 and C4) of the eight clusters were new characteristic clusters of aboriginal Taiwanese and accounted for 8.3% and 13.9% of the aboriginal lineages, respectively. From the estimated coalescent times for the two unique clusters, the mtDNA lineages leading to such clusters were inferred to have been introduced into Taiwan approximately 11,000-26,000 years ago, suggesting ancient immigrations of the two mtDNA lineages. Genetic distances, based on net nucleotide diversities between populations, revealed three distinct clusters that were comprised of northern mountain (Atayal and Saisiat), southern mountain (Rukai and Paiwan), and middle mountain/east coast (Bunun, Tsou, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami) groups, respectively. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of 16 human populations (including six other Asian populations and one African population) confirmed that the three clusters for aboriginal Taiwanese had remained largely intact. Each of the clusters (north, south, and middle-east coast) was characterized by a high frequency of a particular lineage (C4, C2, and 9-bp deletion, respectively). This may result from random genetic drift among the aboriginal groups after a single introduction of all the mtDNA lineages into Taiwan, but another plausible explanation is that at least three genetically distinct ancestral populations have contributed to the maternal gene pool of aboriginal Taiwanese.

 

 

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations by Jean A. Trejaut, et al.

Principal Components Analysis

 

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

Mitochondrial DNA (Neighbor Joining Phylogram)

 

 

* Genetic Evidence for the Proto-Austronesian Homeland in Asia: mtDNA and Nuclear DNA Variation in Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes by Terry Melton, et al.

Neighbor-joining Tree Based on Matrix of Nei Standard Genetic Distances, for the Eight Alu Insertion Polymorphisms

 

PC Map Based on First and Second Scaled Vectors Derived from the Frequency of Eight Alu Insertion Polymorphisms

 

 

* Dental Arch and Palate in Taiwan Aboriginals--Ami, Bunun, Paiwan and Rukai Tribes by H. Miyazaki, et al.

Abstract: Differences in the dental arch and palate among Taiwan Aboriginals were investigated and compared with Taiwanese and Japanese. Plaster models were taken from 315 Taiwan Aboriginal adults, 185 Taiwanese and 426 Japanese between 1979 and 1989, and various dimensions were measured. There were no clear differences in the characteristics of the dental arch and palate between Taiwan Aboriginal tribes. However, they were found to differ from those of Taiwanese and Japanese. In a dendrogram constructed from a cluster analysis, two major clusters were found. Among males, the first cluster contained Paiwan and Rukai, the second contained Japanese, Taiwanese, Ami and Bunun. Among females, the first contained Japanese, Taiwanese, Rukai and Paiwan, the second contained Ami and Bunun. The Ami were close to Bunun and the Paiwan were close to Rukai among both males and females. These results indicate that Ami and Bunun, and Paiwan and Rukai, respectively, have close affinities.

 

 

* Nonmetric Tooth Crown Traits in the Ami Tribe, Taiwan Aborigines: Comparisons with Other East Asian Populations by Y Manabe, et al.

Abstract: The frequencies of occurrence of 17 tooth crown traits in the living Ami tribe, which inhabits the east coast of Taiwan, were investigated and compared with other East Asian populations based on Turner's (1987) Mongoloid dental variation theory. Principal coordinate analysis based on Smith's mean measure of divergence using frequencies of the 17 traits suggests that the Ami tribe together with the Yami tribe and the Bunun tribe is included in the sinodont group typical of the Chinese mainland and northeast Asia. In light of these results and the estimated distribution of sinodonty and sundadonty in the past and the present, we speculate that the gene flow from Chinese mainlanders to native sundadonts, who seem to have migrated northward to Taiwan, contributed significantly to the formation of the living Taiwan aboriginal groups, sinodonts. Among the aboriginal tribes of Taiwan, the Ami have characteristics intermediate between those of the Yami and the Bunun. The relative positions of these tribes in East Asian populations suggests that the extent of sinodontification and of genetic isolation is one of the causes of the intertribal variation.

 

 

* JC Virus Genotypes in a Taiwan Aboriginal Tribe (Bunun): Implications for its population history by Chang D, et al.

Abstract: The origin of Taiwanese aborigines remains obscure; it has been speculated that they may be from either mainland China or southeastern Asia. We used the JCV genotyping method to elucidate the origin of Bunun aborigines who now live in central mountain areas of Taiwan. We found that Bunun aborigines carried two major (B1-a2 and CY) and two minor JCV genotypes (B1-a1 and SC). This was contrasted with the JCV genotype profile in modern Taiwanese: one major (SC) and two minor genotypes (CY and B1-a1). It thus appears that B1-a2 and CY are indigenous to the Bunun tribe. B1-a2 was first identified in this study as a discrete cluster that contained only Bunun and Philippine JCV isolates and that was closely related to B1-a1, one of the three common JCV genotypes in China. CY predominates in North China, while SC predominates in South China and southeastern Asia. The present findings suggest that the Bunun tribe is an admixture of two ethnic groups, one carrying B1-a2 and the other carrying CY. In other words, it is likely that the Bunun tribe was established by two waves of immigrations from mainland Asia, predating those by southern Chinese which began in the 17th century.

 

 

* The Peopling of the Pacific from a Bacterial Perspective by Yoshan Moodley, et al.

The Distribution of H. pylori Populations in Asia and the Pacific

(Distribution of hspMaori among Taiwnaese aborigines: Kavalan 0/1, Atayal 4/4, Amis 7/16, Bunun 13/14, Rukai 3/3, Paiwan 15/18, Yami 1/3)

1. Japan-Hokkaido, 2. Japan-Honshu, 3. Japan-Okinawa, 4. Korea, 5. China-Hong Kong, 13. Vietnam, 14. Singapore, 15. Malaysia, 16. Thailand, 17. Philippines, 18. India - Ladakh, 19. New Caledonia - Melanesians, 20. New Caledonia - Polynesians from Wallis and Futuna, 21. New Zealand, 22. Samoa/Tonga

 

 

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

NJ Dendrogram

 

 

* The Origin of Minnan & Hakka, the So-Called "Taiwanese" Inferred by HLA Study by M. Lin

 

 

* Heterogeneity of Taiwan’s Indigenous Population: Possible relation to prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals by m. Lin, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of Taiwan’s indigenous peoples, Asians, North American Indians and Oceanians

Taiwan’s indigenous groups were found clustering together and adjacent to Maori and PNG Highlanders. Pazeh showed affinity with ‘Taiwanese’ (Hoklo, Hakka)

 

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Excerpt: The MDS (characterized by a very good stress value of 0.041) segregates four Northern and Central Han populations at the top, the Minnan from Taiwan in a central position, and the Southern Han from Guangzhou, the eight Austronesian populations from Taiwan and the extra-Formosan Yami at the bottom. The four Northern and Central Han populations are genetically linked to each other according to a pattern recalling their relative geographic position. The Minnan are genetically intermediate between the Northern and the Southern Han but are very distant from both groups and significantly differentiated from all populations. Within the last group, we observe three clusters of genetically related populations: the Atayal, Taroko and Tsou; the Pazeh, Siraya, Bunun and Puyuma; and the Ami and Yami. In addition, we find that the Southern Han from Guangzhou are genetically very close to the Taroko, Atayal and Tsou, from whom they are not differentiated significantly according to the permutation statistical test (dotted lines). Genetic relationships are also suggested between the Taroko and both the Siraya and Bunun, and between the Puyuma and the Ami according both to the permutation test and to their relative position in the MDS.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 15 Populations from Taiwan and
China Based on the Frequencies of GM ± 23 Sub-haplotypes

Solid lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to an exact test of population differentiation. Dotted lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to a permutation test on pairwise Fst’s, but not to the exact test. Final stress = 0.041 (excellent). White circles: Sino-Tibetans; triangles: Austronesians from Taiwan; black circle: Extra-Formosan Austronesians.

 

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

 

* HLA Genetic Diversity and Linguistic Variation in East Asia by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Analysis (MDS) of Asian Populations Based on the HLADRB1 Allelic Polymorphism

AL: Altaic; AN (EF): Austronesian (Extra-Formosan); AN (TA): Austronesian (from Taiwan); AU: Austroasiatic; CK: Chukchi-Kamchatkan; EA: Eskimo-Aleut; GI: Gilyak; IEUY: Indo-European and Uralic-Yukaghir; KA: Tai-Kadai; SI: Sinitic; ST: Sino-Tibetan (here only Sinitic). Chinese (1): Northern Chinese; Chinese (2): Southern Chinese.

 

 

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan II. Serum Protein Systems by Isao Yuasa, et al.

NJ Trees for the Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan and Eight Other Populations Based on Ds (A) and Dc (B) Distance Matrix

 

 

* A Study of the Genetic Relationships Among Aboriginal Populations in Taiwan ：Comparison of Pseudogene Sequences on Autosomal Chormorsome

UPGMA Tree

(P-Puyuma, Ta-Atayal, S-Saisiat, T-Tsou, R-Rukai, Pai-Paiwan, H-Taiwan Han, A-Amis, B-Bunun)

 

NJ Tree

 

 

* Genetic Diversity in the Class HLA-B Gene of the Nine Taiwan Aboriginal Tribes and Han Chinese as Revealed by High Resolution Sequence-Based HLA Typing Implication for the Origins and Dispersal of the Taiwan Aborigines by 賴朝陽

Abstract: The polygenic HLA (human leukocyte antigen) gene complex is the most polymorphic cluster of functional genes known. The high polymorphism of HLA genes makes these functional genes ideal genetic markers for studying inter-relationships among various human populations. Combing the results of HLA polymorphism with evidences from socio-cultural, archaeological and linguistic studies, we may understand better the origins and dispersal of human populations. In this study we have used sequence-based typing (SBT) to analyze the degree of polymorphism of class HLA-B gene in the nine Taiwan aboriginal tribes (Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat, Tsou, and Yami) and Taiwan Han Chinese. The allele frequencies of each population are estimated by a maximum-likelihood method and used to calculate genetic distances between pairwise populations according to Nei s formula. Phylogenetic tree is then constructed from these genetic distances. The results show limited genetic diversity of Taiwan aborigines. The distributions of allele frequencies of Taiwan aborigines versus Han Chinese are different. All the Taiwan aboriginal tribes have a high percentage of B*1301, B*3901, B*4001, B*4002, B*4801, B*5502. Allele frequencies of HLA-B in Yami and Taiwn Han Chinese are different from those in the other populations. The total frequencies of these six alleles are more than 70 in all tribes except Yami, Puyuma and Taiwan Han Chinese. The results of allele frequencies and genetic distances also indicate that Yami and Taiwan Han Chinese are more different from the other populations. Phylogentic trees constructed from both class  HLA-A,-B and class  HLA-DPB1, -DRB1, -DRB3/4/5, show that 1 the Atayal and Saisiat, as well as Rukai and Bunun, probably are monophylic; 2 the Yami tribe seem to be very different from the other aboriginal tribes. In the future, when there are more genetic data from populations in the Philippines and Southeast Asia, South mainland China and Pacificregions, we may understand much more about the origins and dispersal of Taiwan aborigines in particular, and the Austronesians in general.

 

 

* A Homeland or Hostland? The power and challenges of genetic studies on Austronesian’s expansion by Mutsu Hsu and Shu-Juo Chen

Neighbor-joining Tree of Taiwan AN Populations, East Asians, Southeast Asians and Other Populations Worldwide (from Chu et al. 2001)

 

Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree for the Nine Taiwan AN Populations and Other Asian and African Populations (from Tajima et al. 2003)

Ami showed difference with other eight populations (including Yami)

 

 

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Higer AN Phylogeny Based on Innovations among Numerals

 

 

HLA-B13

HLA-B13 (B13) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies the more common HLA-B*13 gene products. (For terminology help see: HLA-serotype tutorial)

 

HLA B*1301 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Papua New Guinea Wosera	28.3
Australian Aborigine Cape York Peninsula	27.0
Taiwan Bunun	26.7
Australian Aborigine Groote Eylandt	23.3
Taiwan Thao	21.7
Taiwan Tsou	17.6
India Khandesh Pawra	12.0
China South Han	8.2
New Caledonia	7.7
Philippines Ivatan	6.0
Papua New Guinea Eastern Highlands Goroka	5.7
Singapore Riau Malay	5.4
China North Han	4.8
Thailand	4.1
India West Coast Parsis	3.0
India North Hindus	2.9
Jordan Amman	2.1
South Korea (3)	2.1
Thailand	2.1
China Inner Mongolia	2.0
France South East	1.9
Georgia Tibilisi Kurds	1.7
Japan Central	1.5
India Andhra Pradesh Golla	1.4
India North Delhi	1.1

 

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布農族

布農族(Bunun)，台灣原住民的一個族群，主要居住在海拔1500公尺以上的高山上，現在的人口約四萬人。

布農人稱「人」為bunun，這也是該族名稱的由來。現今布農族的分佈地主要在南投縣的信義、仁愛兩鄉，花蓮縣的卓溪、萬榮兩鄉，另外還有分佈於高雄縣的桃源、那瑪夏兩鄉、以及台東縣的海端和延平兩鄉。其人口數在台灣原住民中居第四位，但分佈面積則僅次於泰雅族而居第二位。就遷移而言，布農人卻是台灣的原住民當中，人口移動幅度最大、伸展力最強的一族。

 

地理分佈

布農族居住於中央山脈兩側，是典型的高山民族。據說，該族最早居住於鹿港、斗六、竹山一帶，後來漸漸往高山遷移。目前所知的最早的居住地是南投縣的仁愛與信義鄉。

十八世紀時，世居南投的布農族開始大量的遷移，一是往東遷至花蓮的卓溪鄉、萬榮鄉，再從花蓮移至台東的海端鄉與延平鄉。另一支沿著中央山脈南移至高雄的那瑪夏鄉與桃源鄉以及台東縣海端鄉的山區。由於民族大遷移的結果，該族的分佈範圍也因此擴展遍佈於南投、高雄、花蓮、台東等縣境內。

布農族共分為六個群，均居住於南投一帶，分別是卓社群、郡社群、卡社群、丹社群、巒社群以及已被同化的蘭社群(takopulan)。目前各群居住地分別如下：

• 卓社群 (take-todo)：南投縣信義鄉久美村、仁愛鄉中正、法治、萬豐村。
• 卡社群 (take bakha)：信義鄉南潭、地利、雙龍三村。
• 丹社群 (take vatan)：信義鄉地利村、花蓮縣萬榮鄉馬遠村。
• 巒社群 (takebanuad)：信義鄉豐丘、望鄉、新鄉、人倫及花蓮縣卓溪鄉。
• 郡社群 (isbukun)：信義鄉東埔、羅娜、明德及台東縣海端鄉、延平鄉及高雄縣那瑪夏鄉、桃源鄉。是五個社群中最大的一支。

文化特質

在台灣的原住民中，布農族是傳統祭儀最多的一族。由於對於小米收穫的重視，因而發展出一系列繁複而長時間的祭祀儀式。一些比較常被學者提到的儀式，包括「小米開墾祭」(Mapulaho)、「小米播種祭」(Igbinagan)、「除草祭」(Inholawan)、「收穫祭」(Sodaan)、「入倉祭」(Andagaan)、「射耳祭」(Malahodaigian)等。對於農事或狩獵行事的時間，布農人依著植物的枯榮與月亮的盈缺來決定。例如李花盛開時，適合播種小米;月缺時適合驅蟲、除草;滿月時適合收割舉行收穫祭。由月亮的圓滿來象徵人生的圓滿與小米的豐收，以月缺來表示怯除不好的事物，希望它快快消失。在除草祭儀結束後，布農人打起陀螺，祈望小米像陀螺快速旋轉(快速成長)。並在空地上架起鞦韆，希望小米如鞦韆盪(長)得一樣高。因此，我們可以說，布農人是一個充滿想像力、生活態度充滿象徵意味的民族。

由於祭儀的繁複，布農人在音樂上也發展出相當複雜的和音唱法，以配合祭禮的進行。1952年，日本的音樂學者黑澤隆朝將布農族的「祈禱小米豐收歌」(Pasibutbut)寄至聯合國的文教組織，當代的知名音樂學者聽了之後，驚訝於古老的部落為何會有如此繁複的和音，當時西方的音樂學家認為音樂的起源是由單音、雙音而發展至和音的理論也不攻自破，從此重寫了音樂起源說的論點。

這首歌是以多聲部和音唱法，從低音漸高，一直唱到最高音域的和諧音，以美妙的和聲娛悅天神，同時也依此判斷當年小米之收成。為了祈求小米能夠豐收，布農族社裡的男子圍成一圈，一起合唱「祈禱小米豐收歌」。族人相信，歌聲越好天神越高興，今年的小米就會結實累累。因此，每一個人都以虔敬的心情唱著。歌聲一開始，其實只有四部合音，但當音域高到某一個層次時，音軌出現了八個不同的音階，因此被世人稱之為「八部合音」。這也是目前世界上獨一無二的和音方式，堪稱是世界音樂的瑰寶。

 

「布農族」的洪水傳說

傳說從前布農族曾經有文字，在一場大洪水中，兄弟倆分別帶著先人留下的寶物避難，負責保管文字的哥哥竟將文字流失，從此布農族人便失去了文字。雖然失去了文字，卻擁有其他民族所沒有的「畫曆」，於1937年自南投一位族人家中發現的一塊木雕畫曆，以類似象形字之符號記載著農事、出獵等行事，是布農族先人所留下來珍貴的智慧遺產。

 

布農族名人

• 王宏恩-知名男歌手。
• 秀蘭瑪雅-知名女歌手，1/2布農族血統。
• 余賢明-知名職棒球員，余宏開之子，效力於興農牛隊。
• 邱俊文-知名職棒球員，邱德聖之子，效力於中信鯨隊。
• 許文雄-知名職棒球員，效力於La new熊隊。
• 王國進-知名職棒球員，曾效力於中信鯨隊，現效力於興農牛隊。
• 霍斯陸曼伐伐-已故作家，生前致力於記載細膩呈現原住民文化。

 

東埔溫泉

東埔溫泉位於臺灣中部南投縣信義鄉東埔村，是往返阿里山國家公園與日月潭國家風景區之中點風景區，或是登山客經八通關通往玉山的歇腳處。因緊鄰玉山國家公園西北側，風景據點多，遊憩區遼闊。彩虹瀑布、雲龍瀑布、乙女瀑布、溪谷、父子斷崖、清朝八通關古道/日治越嶺古道、雲海，森林遍佈，動植物生態豐富，蝴蝶多達177種。台灣特有種的鳥類、兩棲類、植物類常見於此區。溫泉位於玉山北峰尾稜與望鄉山交界處，沿彩虹溪(學名為八項溪)河谷分佈，由地質分類上屬於雪山山脈帶的變質岩區溫泉。全區屬布農族的傳統領域。

 

 

* 台南烏山頭遺址出土古代人類DNA序列分析 by 鄭萱怡

中文摘要: 臺灣考古學研究至今已有百年以上歷史，發現的遺址超過一千兩百多處，顯示臺灣史前文化豐富且多樣性的面貌。近年，南部科學園區發掘大量遺址，相信對於臺灣史前文化層序的建立提供相當大的幫助。但是，他們是誰？從哪裡來？往哪裡去？與現今臺灣南島民族之間的關係為何？回答這些問題，才能使我們對台灣的史前史有更完整的理解。 本研究主要目的在於連結史前文化與台灣原民族，除了為史前文化定位，也為族群探源。經過幾千年時空的轉變，目前，只有少數已挖掘的史前文化能透過模糊的物質特徵，將原住民族與可能的祖源文化串聯。近年來，遺傳學為族群親源關係研究提供更寬廣的視野，但是基因流動（gene flow）、基因漂變（genetic drift）等現象，會造成以現代人為樣本研究的限制。從出土遺骸萃取古代DNA可以探尋古代族群基因庫，直接理解史前人類遷徙的行為模式。 研究中，筆者利用曾文溪流域中下游，距今約2500－2800年前，烏山頭遺址所出土的古代遺骸，進行DNA定序分析，並比對臺灣高山族及其他已出版資料，除了找尋與古代族群可能有親緣關係的台灣南島民族之外，也希望能發現烏山頭古代族群的來源地。 在二十二個古代樣本中，筆者成功萃取出五個古代DNA。遺傳距離分析顯示，烏山頭古代族群與布農族有最接近的親緣關係。我們不能肯定烏山頭古代族群是布農族唯一直接的祖源，但我們可以說明布農族基因庫中有一部份來自2800年前居住在烏山頭遺址的古代族群。 比對台灣鄰近地區資料後，發現只有中國地區漢藏語系族群與古代族群有共享的單倍群，這暗示著烏山頭古代族群可能來自中國東南地區。同時也引發一個問題，烏山頭古代族群是否為漢藏族群的一支，來台後才融入南島民族？或者烏山頭古代族群是中國大陸地區曾經存在南島語族群的證據？將來收集更多的資料我們才能為這些問題解答。 此為臺灣古代DNA研究首例，期待將來更多的物質文化研究能結合古代樣本分析，進一步釐清台灣史前文化脈絡。

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Writer: Husluman．Vava - 霍斯陸曼．伐伐 (王新民)

(Photo from 在回家的路上，說故事的布農族人--關於霍斯陸曼．伐伐的《玉山魂》 by 陳思嫻)

霍斯陸曼伐伐（1958年1月30日－2007年12月29日），漢名王新民，台灣布農族作家，出生於台東縣海端鄉廣原村，屬布農族巒社群。曾任教職，生平致力於透過學術研究與文藝創作推廣保留布農族文化，著作獲獎無數。2007年年底因心肌梗塞逝世。

 

玉山魂 by 霍斯陸曼．伐伐

2007台灣文學獎長篇小說金典獎

 

 

《玉山魂》是一部如史詩般壯麗的長篇小說，藉由一名布農族少年的成長之路，生動且鉅細靡遺地描繪傳統布農族原住民與山林共存的部落生活。清晨的山嵐、累歪在山頭上的太陽、歡騰的鳥鳴、風中的小米田、孩童與母親之間的唱和以及獵人的血……點點滴滴，一字一句，布農族人日常生活中所感受到的喜悅，以及孕育自大地、強悍而溫柔的生命力，躍然紙上；看似迷信的神話與禁忌，其實都是對自然的理解與尊重。布農族獵人的驕傲、對上天賜與食糧的感恩之心、和諧的吟唱歌詠……隨著四季輪迴，布農族人的生與死、成長與衰落，就在四時的祭儀中，與天地山野共榮共生。

 

玉山的生命精靈 by 霍斯陸曼．伐伐

 

 

 

中央山脈孕育的子民布農族（Bunun），視萬物為生命的精靈；奉大地為神聖的母親。作者懷著真摯的感情與赤誠的恩情，崇敬讚歎，並栩栩說著很久很久以前…… 每一則神話、每一篇故事的口傳神話，替讀者揭開Bunun悠久的歷史；替讀者揭開Bunun優美的文化。本書是作者的第一本著作，從部落長老口授傳承的神話故事中，蒐集整理而成；作者以純真的筆觸、素樸的文字，呈現玉山孕育的子民與大自然互尊互重、共生共存的生活體驗。環繞著以玉山為發祥地的布農族人對自然界與生命的體認，相信生命由「自我」、「惡的精靈」、「善的精靈」組成。

 

黥面 by 霍斯陸曼．伐伐

1998教育部文藝創作獎短篇小說佳作

 

 

 

* 寫作是為了尋找回家的路 布農族作家霍斯陸曼．伐伐 紀念特展 原鄉巡迴~到「海端」 by 文建會

* 巨星殞落~~原住民作家霍斯陸曼伐伐遽逝 by 原住民文學院

* 在女巨人褲襠下的日子 by 霍斯陸曼．伐伐

* 玉山情.布農魂: 霍斯陸曼.伐伐的祖靈追尋 by 中華民國僑務委員會

 

 

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Writer: 拓拔斯·塔瑪匹瑪 (田雅各)

(Photo from 拓拔斯‧塔瑪匹瑪 by 山海文化台灣原住民文學數位典藏)-

拓拔斯·塔瑪匹瑪，台灣布農族人，漢名田雅各，1960年出生於南投縣信義鄉，高雄醫學院醫學系畢業。

以台灣原住民醫療服務為職志，曾服務於台東縣蘭嶼鄉、省立花蓮醫院、高雄縣那瑪夏鄉、桃源鄉，目前則服務於台東縣長濱鄉衛生所。

田雅各具有原住民、醫生、作家三重身份，其將原住民部落與都市文化的對比為題材做深層思考，作品風格獨具，頗獲好評。曾獲1986年吳濁流文學獎，1991年獲賴和醫療文學獎。著有《最後的獵人》、《情人與妓女》、《蘭嶼行醫記》等書。

 

情人與妓女 by 拓拔斯·塔瑪匹瑪

 

 

 

 

蘭嶼行醫記 by 拓拔斯·塔瑪匹瑪

 

 

 

那年我們祭拜祖靈 by 拓拔斯·塔瑪匹瑪

 

 

 

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Map of Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes