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Puyuma

(Photo of A-mei)

 

Samingad (紀曉君)

 

陳建年（Purdur，1967年8月—）（41歲），台灣歌手，一位來自台灣卑南族的青年警察，從小與張惠妹同一個部落長大，也是卑南族歌謠大師陸森寶的傳人，推出自己的音樂創作專輯「海洋」，用自己的聲音語言，大聲唱自己的歌，其所創作的歌曲「故鄉普悠瑪」、「雨與你」、「也曾感覺」，曾被救國團台東團委會選為必教歌。

 

 

* Videos:

• 卑南族 Puyuma
• 故鄉 Puyuma
• 海洋
• 我們是同胞
• 卑南山
• na lu wan
• 蘭嶼情歌

PUYUMA

Excerpts from Wikipedia.org

The Puyuma (卑南), also known as the Peinan or Beinan tribe, are one of the tribal groups of the Taiwanese aborigines. The tribe is generally divided into the Chihpen and Nanwang groups, both resident in Taitung County on the east coast of Taiwan.

In the year 2000 the Puyuma numbered 9,606. This was approximately 2.4% of Taiwan's total indigenous population, making them the sixth-largest tribal group. The Puyuma speak their tribal language as well as Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese. The Puyuma language, however, is dying.

 

Ethnic Puyuma

• A-mei, a Taiwanese pop singer, is an ethnic Puyuma.
• Samingad (紀曉君), Taiwanese aboriginal singer.
• Pur-dur (陳建年), Taiwanese aboriginal singer.

 

Language

The Puyuma language is the language of the Puyuma people, a tribe of indigenous people on Taiwan (see Taiwanese aborigines). It is a Formosan language of the Austronesian family.

 

Classification of Austronesian Languages

• Tsouic
  • Tsou
  • Saaroa
  • Kanakanabu
• Western Plains
  • Thao (AKA Sao. Brawbaw, Shtafari dialects)
  • Central Western Plains
    • Babuza (Taokas, Poavosa dialects)
    • Popora-Hoanya (Popora, Hoanya dialects)
• Northwest Formosan
  • Saisiyat (Taai, Tungho dialects)
  • Pazeh (AKA Kulun)
• Atayalic
  • Atayal
  • Seediq (AKA Truku, Taroko)
• East Formosan
  • Northern (Kavalanic)
    • Basai (Trobiawan, Linaw-Qauqaul dialects)
    • Kavalan
    • Ketagalan
  • Central (Ami)
    • Nataoran (North Amis)
    • Amis
  • Siraya
  • Malayo-Polynesian
• Bunun
• Rukai (Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects are divergent)
• Puyuma
• Paiwan (southern tip of Formosa)

 

 

 

 

Puyuma Distribution Map

(Map from Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigeneous Peoples)

 

 

Aborigines of Taiwan: The Puyuma: From Headhunting to the Modern World by Josiane Cauquelin

 

Ritual Texts of the Last Traditional Practitioners of Nanwang Puyuma by Josiane Cauquelin

 

 

 

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Puyuma Men

(Image from Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigeneous Peoples)

 

 

Images from

 

 

 

 

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* 從醫學資料看臺灣的族群融合 by 陳順勝

6,000年前 南島語族遷移來臺灣發展族群：泰雅族、鄒族、賽夏、巴則海、洪雅族 　

5,000年前 排灣族群：排灣、卑南、魯凱族群遺址 (卑南遺址) 　

2,000年前 凱達格蘭族遷回臺灣

1,500年前 阿美族在靜浦─靜浦文化，鐵器時代 　

1,000年前 猴猴族遷回臺灣或由泰雅族分出(？) 　　

500年前 雅美族由菲律賓巴丹島移居蘭嶼

 

卑南遺址

大約在一百多年前，日本的學者鳥居龍藏來到台東卑南遺址，留下了最早的照片和記錄。月形石柱的價值，在於它所代表的象徵和意義，因為它正是卑南文化千年故事的起點。

卑南遺址，位於台灣台東縣卑南山東南端的山麓，是屬於台灣東部之新石器時代卑南文化的一個代表性遺址。根據考古學家的推斷，該遺址存在的年代大約是距今5300至2300年前，其中又以距今3500至2300年前最為興盛。卑南遺址的面積超過30萬平方公尺，是目前台灣所發現最大的史前聚落。此外，卑南遺址也出土了許多石板棺以及棺內精美的陪葬品，是環太平洋與東南亞地區規模最大的石板棺墓葬群遺址。

目前，卑南遺址不但是中華民國內政部文化建設委員會所指定的國定遺址，同時在該處也設有卑南文化公園，是台灣第一個考古遺址公園。

遺址挖掘簡史: 卑南遺址最早的考古紀錄是由日治初期的日本籍人類學者鳥居龍藏所開始，他曾為卑南遺址的石柱拍攝兩幀照片，其拍攝時間可能約在1896年。而鹿野忠雄則是第一位將卑南遺址當作考古遺址加以研究的學者，在鹿野忠雄1930年發表的文章中曾敘述在卑南遺址所在處有數不清的板岩石柱豎立於地表上。1945年時，金關丈夫和國分直一首次對最大立石的周圍開始進行試掘，並發現埋藏於遺跡地底的陶器以及住屋遺跡。

二次大戰結束之後，雖然有不少台灣學者陸續前來卑南遺址進行調查，但都未曾做過發掘。1980年，南迴鐵路卑南新站（今台東站）開工，將地下沉睡數千年的遺構、遺物大量揭露，並造成嚴重破壞，而引起輿論及各方的高度關切。台東縣政府遂委託台灣大學考古人類學系的宋文薰、連照美兩位教授，進行搶救考古。搶救考古工作共進行13梯次，前後長達9年，成果十分豐碩。無論是發掘面積、出土石棺及遺物數量皆是台灣考古史的空前紀錄，尤其是大量精美玉器重現於世，令人驚艷。

卑南文化: 卑南文化主要分佈於台灣東部的海岸山脈和花東縱谷南段的河階、海階或山區的緩坡地。重要遺址除了卑南遺址之外，還包括掃叭、富山、漁場、漁場南、東河Ⅰ、東河Ⅲ等其他地方。在這些遺址都出土了大量鐮刀、石刀等農具，而且器型也有大型化的趨勢，可見農耕更形發展、也更重要了。至於海岸地區的遺址則出土豐富的網墜、尖器等漁業用具，又顯示對海洋資源的依賴。

卑南遺址聚落描述以及出土器物: 卑南遺址的範圍相當大，面積超過30萬平方公尺。不但聚落龐大，而且建築物成排分佈，格局嚴謹，已經是頗具組織的社會結構。其住屋略成南北軸向，遙指都蘭山。每棟家屋坐西朝東，遠望溪流與海洋。家屋主體為長方形平面，東西長11.5公尺。南北寬5.5公尺。以板岩石板、大漂石為牆基，木材為柱，屋牆、屋頂葺以竹架、茅草。屋前以石板舖成方形前庭，屋後有橢圓形砌石圈，用來儲存食物及大陶罐。聚落中還有零星分佈的高架榖倉，支柱上配有防鼠板。

狩獵與農耕是卑南文化人的主要生業。他們在山林間獵野豬，在丘陵、平原捕梅花鹿。種植的穀物有旱稻、小米，以「山田燒墾」方式開闢田地。出土的農耕工具相當多，有墾地伐木的石鋤、石斧，收割的石刀、石鎌，舂榖的石杵等。狩獵的主要工具則有石矛、石鏃等。聚落雖然瀕臨卑南大溪，但村民並不擅長捕漁，魚類只是輔助的食物。

長期定居促使族人發展出各類工藝技術。除了農具、獵具等石器外，陶器是日常生活最普遍的用具之一，主要用來盛水、儲物及烹煮。陶器通常是手製，偶而使用轉盤整修技術，以露天方式燒成，火侯較低。外表以橙色素麵為主，少有紋飾。主要器形有罐、缽、小口瓶等容器，以及陶紡輪、陶槌、陶勺、陶匙等工具，也有少許裝飾品如陶珠、陶環，隨葬品如陶偶等。

精緻的玉器最能顯現族人審美觀與工藝技術能力。包括玉與似玉材質製成的頭飾、耳飾、頸飾、胸飾、腕飾、臂飾，以及一些非實用性的武器、工具，式樣繁多，風格別具。造形上，以玦形耳飾最富於變化。其中人獸形玦造形可作為代表，已被國立台灣史前文化博物館選為該館的館徽。這些玉器多為族人平常的裝飾品，人過世後則當作隨葬品長埋地底。從這些玉器的精細程度來判斷，很可能已經有人專門從事玉石飾品製作，並以玉製器物來交易。

此外，有數以千計的石板棺埋在卑南遺址的建築物底部，成帶狀分佈，而且與地上建築物的座向相同，顯然意義非比尋常。棺內更有豐富又精美的陪葬玉器、陶器，可見當時人已有靈魂觀念，相信死後另有世界，並且有相沿成俗的喪葬儀禮。出土的家屋與墓葬上下緊密交疊，成為卑南遺址的一大特色。

該遺址也發現了被獵頭的無頭遺骸，很可能是因為族群擴張領域、爭奪自然資源，開始出現部落間的爭戰。

遺址公園的誕生: 基於卑南遺址的重要性，宋文薰教授於1982年即建議就地興建野外博物館。1988年，卑南遺址被中華民國內政部列為國家一級古蹟。1991年，中央政府決定將遺址現地規劃為「卑南文化公園」。2002年8月，位於卑南遺址附近台東市康樂車站的國立台灣史前文化博物館首先開幕。4個月後，卑南文化公園遊客中心正式對外開放，台灣第一個遺址公園於焉誕生。

整個卑南文化公園的規劃理念，是將遺址視作一個蒼穹博物館。因此，該公園的一個特色，就是可以在園區內看到現場的考古發掘展示。

卑南文化公園的地址是台東市文化公園路200號。

 

 

* 鳥瞰台灣史前文化 by tnfsh.tn.edu.tw

 

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* Recent Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Indigenous Populations by Shu-Juo Chen, et al.

Y-chromosome Haplotype Frequency Distribution in Asian and Oceanic Populations

Populations	N	H1	H2	H3	H4	H5	H6	H7	H8	H9	H10	H11	H12	H14	H16	H17
Bunun	17					5.9				17.6	58.8		17.6
Atayal	22						4.5			95.5
Yami	7							14.3		71.4	14.3
Paiwan	22								9.1	63.6	27.3
Ami	19							31.6	5.3	36.8	26.3
Puyuma	11							9.1		72.7	9.1			9.1
Tsou	18							5.6		88.9	5.6
Rukai	11									81.8	18.2
Saisiat	11							27.3		45.5	9.1	9.1	9.1
Thao	11					9.1		9.1		72.7	9.1
Pazah	11					18.2		27.3		18.2	36.4

 

 

The Phylogeny of Y-chromosome Haplotypes in East Asians (H1-H17) from Natives or Immigrants: Modern human origin in east Asia by Li Jin and Bing Su

 

 

Markers in Su's Nomenclature System from A Nomenclature System for the Tree of Human
Y-Chromosomal Binary Haplogroups by The Y Chromosome Consortium

Name	Derived state at	Ancestral state at	Name by lineage
H5	M9	M122, M119, M95, M45, M5	K*(xO3,O1,O2a,P,M)
H6	M122	M7, M134	O3*(xO3d, O3e)
H7	M7		O3d
H8	M134		O3e
H9	M119	M50	O1*(xO1b)
H10	M50		O1b
H11	M95	M88	O2a*
H12	M88		O2a1
H14	M45	M120, M3, M17	P*(xQ1,Q3,R1a1)

 

 

Haplogroup P (Y-DNA)

Haplogroup P (M45) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup.

This haplogroup contains the patrilineal ancestors of most Europeans and almost all of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. It also contains approximately one third to two thirds of the males among various populations of Central Asia and Southern Asia.

Origins: Haplogroup P is a branch of Haplogroup K (M9). It is believed to have arisen north of the Hindu Kush, in Siberia, Kazakhstan, or Uzbekistan, approximately 35,000 to 40,000 years ago.

The descendant haplogroups of P include Q (M242) and R (M207).

Distribution: Besides the typically European/South Asian Haplogroup R and South-Central Siberian/Native American Haplogroup Q, other patrilines derived from Haplogroup P-M45 are labeled for sake of convenience as Haplogroup P* and are reported to have been found at low to moderate frequency among modern populations of Central Asia, Siberia, East Asia, and the Russian Far East. There is a conspicuous presence of Haplogroup P* on the Isle of Hvar in the Adriatic Sea off the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, which may be due to historical immigration of Avars from Central Asia. There have also been reports of Haplogroup P* from samples of Ashkenazi Jews, Native Americans, and some populations of South Asia and Oceania, but it is not entirely clear whether these were truly Haplogroup P* or rather instances of a haplogroups derived from Haplogroup P, such as Haplogroup R2 or Haplogroup Q.

The subclades of Haplogroup P with their defining mutation, according to the 2008 ISOGG tree:

• P (92R7, M45, M74, N12, P27)
  • P*
  • Q (M242)
    • Q*
    • Q1 (P36.2)
      • Q1*
      • Q1a (MEH2)
        • Q1a*
        • Q1a1 (M120, M265/N14) Found at low frequency among Chinese, Dungans, Hazaras, Japanese, Koreans, and Tibetans
        • Q1a2 (M25, M143) Found at low to moderate frequency in Iran, Lebanon, and Turkey
        • Q1a3 (M346)
          • Q1a3* Found at low frequency in Pakistan, India, the United Arab Emirates, Khanty, and Tibetans
          • Q1a3a (M3) Typical of indigenous peoples of the Americas
            • Q1a3a*
            • Q1a3a1 (M19) Found among some indigenous peoples of South America, such as the Ticuna and the Wayuu
            • Q1a3a2 (M194)
            • Q1a3a3 (M199, P106, P292)
        • Q1a4 (P48)
        • Q1a5 (P89)
        • Q1a6 (M323) Found in a significant minority of Yemenite Jews
      • Q1b (M378) Found at low frequency among Hazaras and Sindhis

 

* An Anthropological Genetic Study of Taiwan Aborigines Using Y-Chromosome-Specific Microsatellite Variation by 朱家琳

Abstract: This study analyzed the genetic variation of seven Y-chromosomal microsatellite loci (DYS19, DYS388, DYS389, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392 and DYS393) of 240 unrelated male individuals from eight Taiwan aboriginal populations (Atayal, Amis, Bunun, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiat and Tsou) to investigate genetic affinities among these populations and their population history. A total of 79 different haplotypes among 240 males were observed in the study, of which 51 (65%) were each found in a single male only, and 13 (16%) were shared between populations. Analysis of gene diversity indicated that several studied populations have experienced substantial genetic isolation with a reduction in male effective sizes, or have suffered bottlenecks in the past (e.g. Paiwan, Bunun, Tsou and Atayal). All the haplotypes were divided into three main subgroups based on stepwise mutation model. Furthermore, the studied populations were categorized by their predominant haplotypes. According to their haplotype distributions, these eight populations were divided into four groups: (1) Paiwan, Rukai and Puyuma (2) Atayal, Bunun and Tsou (3) Amis and (4) Saisiat. st statistics identified close genetic affinities among the populations in group 1. On the other hand, that the allelic and haplotype distributions of the populations in group 2 were distinct from each other, which suggested that gene flow among these neighboring populations were limited. It is not easy to analyze the genetic variation of Saisiat and Amis because of their complex haplotype distributions. The special allelic distribution of Amis might result from more than one bottleneck occurred in the past or genetic admixture of more than one populations.

 

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* A Comparative Study of Sakizaya and Amis in Hualien by Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Analysis by Li-huang Tsai

NJ Tree

 

UPGMA Tree

 

 

* Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan: Implications for the population history of aboriginal Taiwanese by A. Tajima, et al.

Abstract: Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) polymorphisms in the D-loop region and the intergenic COII/tRNA(Lys) 9-bp deletion were examined in 180 individuals from all nine aboriginal Taiwanese groups: Atayal, Saisiat, Bunun, Tsou, Rukai, Paiwan, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami. A comparison of 563-bp sequences showed that there were 61 different sequence types, of which 42 types were specific to respective aboriginal groups. D-loop sequence variation and phylogenetic analysis enabled the 180 aboriginal lineages to be classified into eight monophyletic clusters (designated C1-C8). Phylogeographic analysis revealed that two (C2 and C4) of the eight clusters were new characteristic clusters of aboriginal Taiwanese and accounted for 8.3% and 13.9% of the aboriginal lineages, respectively. From the estimated coalescent times for the two unique clusters, the mtDNA lineages leading to such clusters were inferred to have been introduced into Taiwan approximately 11,000-26,000 years ago, suggesting ancient immigrations of the two mtDNA lineages. Genetic distances, based on net nucleotide diversities between populations, revealed three distinct clusters that were comprised of northern mountain (Atayal and Saisiat), southern mountain (Rukai and Paiwan), and middle mountain/east coast (Bunun, Tsou, Ami, Puyuma, and Yami) groups, respectively. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of 16 human populations (including six other Asian populations and one African population) confirmed that the three clusters for aboriginal Taiwanese had remained largely intact. Each of the clusters (north, south, and middle-east coast) was characterized by a high frequency of a particular lineage (C4, C2, and 9-bp deletion, respectively). This may result from random genetic drift among the aboriginal groups after a single introduction of all the mtDNA lineages into Taiwan, but another plausible explanation is that at least three genetically distinct ancestral populations have contributed to the maternal gene pool of aboriginal Taiwanese.

 

 

* Traces of Archaic Mitochondrial Lineages Persist in Austronesian-Speaking Formosan Populations by Jean A. Trejaut, et al.

Principal Components Analysis

 

 

* More Genetic Sharing among the Population of Taiwan than Expected: A plain tribes (Pinpu) perspective by Marie Lin, et al.

Mitochondrial DNA (Neighbor Joining Phylogram)

 

 

* Point Mutation in the β sheet of the HLA-C α2 Domain Generates a Novel HLA-C allele, HLA-Cw*08012, in a Puyuma Aboriginal Individual in Taiwan by S. Wu, et al.

Abstract: We report herein the identification of a new HLA-C allele using sequence-based typing (SBT). This novel allele, HLA-Cw*08012, was found in an Aboriginal individual from the Puyuma tribe in the southern part of Taiwan. This individual was typed by the SBT method as having an HLA genotype of HLA-A*2402/2402, HLA-B*1502/4801, HLA-Cw*08011/08012, HLA-DRB1*15011/08032, HLA-DRB5*01011, and DPB1*0501/1401. This new allele differs from HLA-Cw*08011 in one of the nucleotides of the polymorphic exon 3 at codon 99 [TAT→TAC; both code for tyrosine]. This residue is located in the β sheet of the HLA-C α2 domain. This new allele was detected in a few individuals of the Puyuma tribe in Taiwan, but has not yet been observed in other populations in Taiwan.

 

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan - Red Cell Enzyme Systems by Feng Jin, et al.

NJ Dendrogram

 

* Population Genetic Studies on Nine Aboriginal Ethnic Groups of Taiwan II. Serum Protein Systems by Isao Yuasa, et al.

NJ Trees for the Nine Aboriginal Groups of Taiwan and Eight Other Populations Based on Ds (A) and Dc (B) Distance Matrix

 

 

* Heterogeneity of Taiwan’s Indigenous Population: Possible relation to prehistoric Mongoloid dispersals by m. Lin, et al.

Neighbor-joining tree of Taiwan’s indigenous peoples, Asians, North American Indians and Oceanians

Taiwan’s indigenous groups were found clustering together and adjacent to Maori and PNG Highlanders. Pazeh showed affinity with ‘Taiwanese’ (Minnan, Hakka)

 

 

* Signatures of Demographic History and Natural Selection in the Human Major Histocompatibility Complex Loci by Diogo Meyer, et al.

Excerpt: The Malay population has high heterozygosity relative to the aboriginal Taiwanese populations (Puyuma, Saisiat, Yami), which have low values and substantial variation among them. These aboriginal Taiwanese populations are a set of relatively isolated groups with little historical or ongoing admixture (Mack et al. 2006). The low heterozygosity is due to one or two high-frequency alleles at each locus that make up over half of the allele frequency spectrum for these populations (A*2402 in all three populations; B*3901 in the Saisiat and B*1525 and B*4002 in the Yami; and C*0801 and C*0304 in the Puyuma, C*0702 in the Saisiat, and C*0304 and C*0403 in the Yami). The A*2402 allele is also at high frequencies in the Yupik, accounting for their low heterozygosity.

 

* The GM Genetic Polymorphism in Taiwan Aborigines: New data revealing remarkable differentiation patterns
by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Excerpt: The MDS (characterized by a very good stress value of 0.041) segregates four Northern and Central Han populations at the top, the Minnan from Taiwan in a central position, and the Southern Han from Guangzhou, the eight Austronesian populations from Taiwan and the extra-Formosan Yami at the bottom. The four Northern and Central Han populations are genetically linked to each other according to a pattern recalling their relative geographic position. The Minnan are genetically intermediate between the Northern and the Southern Han but are very distant from both groups and significantly differentiated from all populations. Within the last group, we observe three clusters of genetically related populations: the Atayal, Taroko and Tsou; the Pazeh, Siraya, Bunun and Puyuma; and the Ami and Yami. In addition, we find that the Southern Han from Guangzhou are genetically very close to the Taroko, Atayal and Tsou, from whom they are not differentiated significantly according to the permutation statistical test (dotted lines). Genetic relationships are also suggested between the Taroko and both the Siraya and Bunun, and between the Puyuma and the Ami according both to the permutation test and to their relative position in the MDS.

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 15 Populations from Taiwan and
China Based on the Frequencies of GM ± 23 Sub-haplotypes

Solid lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to an exact test of population differentiation. Dotted lines link populations that are undifferentiated at the 5% level according to a permutation test on pairwise Fst’s, but not to the exact test. Final stress = 0.041 (excellent). White circles: Sino-Tibetans; triangles: Austronesians from Taiwan; black circle: Extra-Formosan Austronesians.

 

Multidimensional Scaling Analysis among 63 Populations from Southeast Asia
Excluding all Sino-Tibetans but the Southern Chinese (grouped)

The ‘mixed’ sample is composed of individuals from Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Hunan. ST-SC: Sino-Tibetan, Southern Chinese (Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, Yue); AA: Austroasiatic; KA: Tai-Kadai; AN-EF: Extra-Formosan Austronesian; AN-TW: Autronesian from Taiwan; HM: Hmong-Mien.

 

* HLA Genetic Diversity and Linguistic Variation in East Asia by Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, et al.

Multidimensional Analysis (MDS) of Asian Populations Based on the HLADRB1 Allelic Polymorphism

Puyuma clusters with AU (Austroasiatic) KA (Tai-Kadai)

AL: Altaic; AN (EF): Austronesian (Extra-Formosan); AN (TA): Austronesian (from Taiwan); AU: Austroasiatic; CK: Chukchi-Kamchatkan; EA: Eskimo-Aleut; GI: Gilyak; IEUY: Indo-European and Uralic-Yukaghir; KA: Tai-Kadai; SI: Sinitic; ST: Sino-Tibetan (here only Sinitic). Chinese (1): Northern Chinese; Chinese (2): Southern Chinese.

 

* A Study of the Genetic Relationships Among Aboriginal Populations in Taiwan ：Comparison of Pseudogene Sequences on Autosomal Chormorsome

UPGMA Tree

(P-Puyuma, Ta-Atayal, S-Saisiat, T-Tsou, R-Rukai, Pai-Paiwan, H-Taiwan Han, A-Amis, B-Bunun)

 

NJ Tree

 

 

* A Homeland or Hostland? The power and challenges of genetic studies on Austronesian’s expansion by Mutsu Hsu and Shu-Juo Chen

Neighbor-joining Tree of Taiwan AN Populations, East Asians, Southeast Asians and Other Populations Worldwide (from Chu et al. 2001)

 

Neighbor-joining (NJ) Tree for the Nine Taiwan AN Populations and Other Asian and African Populations (from Tajima et al. 2003)

Ami showed difference with other eight populations (including Yami)

 

* Some Hypotheses on the Formation of East Asian Language Families by Laurent Sagart

Higer AN Phylogeny Based on Innovations among Numerals

 

 

* HLA-A, -B, -Cw and -DRB1 Allele Frequencies in a Puyuma Population from Taiwan by C.C. Chu, et al.

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

 

HLA-A2

HLA-A2 (A2): A2 is more common in Northern Asia and North America than elsewhere, and it is part of a several long haplotypes. The serotype identifies the gene products of many HLA-A*02 alleles, including HLA-A*0201, *0202, *0203, *0206, and *0207 gene products. A*02 is globally common, but A*0201 is at high frequencies in Northern Asia and North America. A2 is the most diverse serotype, showing diversity in Eastern Africa and Southwest Asia. While the frequency of A*0201 in Northern Asia is high, its diversity is limited to A*0201 the less common Asian variants A*0203, A*0206.

 

HLA A*0206 Frequencies

Study population	Freq. (%)
Pakistan Kalash	21.6
Japan Ainu Hokkaido	20.0
Japan Okinawa Ryukuan	18.3
Taiwan Puyuma	12.0
Taiwan Atayal	9.4
Japan pop3	8.7
Japan pop5	8.4
India North Delhi	7.7
Japan Central	7.7
Taiwan Bunun	7.4
China North Han	7.1
South Korea pop 3	7.1
Russia Tuva pop 2	6.9
Pakistan Burusho	6.0
Taiwan Taroko	5.5
Singapore Chinese Han	5.2
China Beijing	4.8
China Beijing Shijiazhuan…	4.7
Hong Kong Chinese	4.7
China Guangxi Maonan	4.6
Mongolia Buriat	4.3
China Guangzhou	4.0
Philippines Ivatan	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
China South Han	3.5
Taiwan Thao	3.3
Pakistan Sindhi	3.2
Pakistan Pathan	3.1
India New Delhi	3.0
Taiwan Rukai	3.0
India North Hindus	2.9
Taiwan Minnan pop 1	2.9
Taiwan Paiwan	2.9
India Andhra Pradesh Goll…	2.8
Taiwan Hakka	2.7

 

Kalash

A Kalash Man

Two Kalash women

The Kalash or Kalasha, are an ethnic group of the Hindu Kush mountain range, residing in the Chitral district of the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan. They speak the Kalash language, a member of the Dardic family of Indo-Aryan Languages.

The culture of Kalash people is unique and differs drastically from the various ethnic groups surrounding them. They are polytheists and nature plays a highly significant and spiritual role in their daily life. As part of their religious tradition, sacrifices are offered and festivals held to give thanks for the abundant resources of their three valleys. Kalash mythology and folklore has been compared to that of ancient Greece, but they are much closer to Indo-Iranian (Vedic and pre-Zoroastrian) traditions

Genetic Origin: Some in the academic community have speculated that the Kalash might be from ancient Middle Eastern populations, an indigenous population from South Asia, or members of Alexander the Great's army. Though often overstated, instances of blond hair or light eyes are not uncommon.

In a 2005 study of ASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that the Kalash people of Pakistan have among the highest rate of the newly-evolved ASPM haplogroup D, at 60% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele. While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the haplogroup D allele is thought to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase, perhaps imbuing cognitive or behavioral abilities related to non-tonal languages and alphabetical scripts.

The Kalash also have been shown to exhibit the exceedingly rare 19 allele value at autosomal marker D9S1120 at a frequency higher than the majority of other world populations which do have it.

Firasat et al. (2006) conclude that the Kalash lack typical Greek haplogroups (e.g. haplogroup 21), On the other hand, a study by Qamar et al. (2002) found that even though "no support for a Greek origin of their Y chromosomes was found" in the Kalash, Greek y-chromosome admixture could be as high as 20% to 40%. Considering the apparent absence of haplogroup 21 in the local population, one of the possibilities suggested was because of genetic drift. On the basis of Y chromosome allele frequency, some researchers describe the exact Greek contribution to Kalash as unclear.

Another study with Qasim Ayub, and S. Qasim Mehdi, and led by Quintana-Murci claims that "the western Eurasian presence in the Kalash population reaches a frequency of 100%, the most prevalent [mtDNA] haplogroup being U4, (pre-HV)1, U2e, and J2," and that they show "no detectable East or South Asian lineages. The outlying genetic position is seen in all analyses. Moreover, although this population is composed of western Eurasian lineages, the most prevalent ... are rare or absent in the surrounding populations and usually characterize populations from Eastern Europe, the Middle East and the Caucasus... All these observations bear witness to the strong effects of genetic drift of the Kalash population... However, a western Eurasian origin for this population is likely, in view of their maternal lineages, which can ultimately be traced back to the Middle East".

The estimates by Qamar et al. of Greek admixture has been dismissed by Toomas Kivisild et al. (2003): “some admixture models and programs that exist are not always adequate and realistic estimators of gene flow between populations ... this is particularly the case when markers are used that do not have enough restrictive power to determine the source populations ... or when there are more than two parental populations. In that case, a simplistic model using two parental populations would show a bias towards overestimating admixture”.

The study came to the conclusion that the Pakistani Kalash population estimate by (Qamar et al. 2002) “is unrealistic and is likely also driven by the low marker resolution that pooled southern and western Asian–specific Y-chromosome haplogroup H together with European-specific haplogroup I, into an uninformative polyphyletic cluster 2”.

A genetic study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics by Sengupta et al. (2006), found the Kalash to comprise high frequencies of Haplogroup L3 (25%), R1a (20%), H1* (20%), Haplogroup G2a (20%), R* (5%), J2a and J2b2 at (5%) each. Haplogroup L originates from prehistoric South Asia.

A study by Rosenberg et al. (2006) employing genetic testing among the Kalash population concluded that they are, in fact, a distinct (and perhaps aboriginal) population with only minor contributions from outside peoples. In one cluster analysis with (K = 7), the Kalash formed one cluster, the others being Africans, Europeans/Middle Easterners/South Asians, East Asians, Melanesians, and Native Americans.

In the recent study: "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation (2008)", geneticists using more than 650,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) samples from the Human Genome Diversity Panel, found deep rooted lineages that could be distinguished in the Kalash. The results showed them not only to be distinct, but perfectly clustered within the Central/South Asian populations at (K = 7). The study also showed the Kalash to be a separated group, with having no membership within European populations.

 

Ainu People

Ainu (also called Ezo in historical texts) are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today; however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origin due to racial issues in Japan. In many cases, surviving Ainu may not be even aware of their ancestry, as their parents and grandparents kept their descent private in order to protect their children from social problems.

Origins: The origins of the Ainu have not been fully determined. They have often been considered Jōmon-jin, natives to Japan from the Jōmon period. "The Ainu lived in this place a hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came" is told in one of their Yukar Upopo (Ainu legends).

Ainu culture dates from around 1200 AD and recent research suggests that it originated in a merger of the Okhotsk and Satsumon cultures. Their economy was based on farming as well as hunting, fishing and gathering.

Full-blooded Ainu are mostly fair-skinned, with the men generally having dense hair development. Many early investigators proposed a Caucasian ancestry, although recent DNA tests have not shown signs of Caucasian ancestry.

Genetic testing of the Ainu people has shown them to belong mainly to Y-haplogroup D. The only places outside of Japan in which Y-haplogroup D is common are Tibet and the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean. In a study by Tajima et al. (2004), two out of a sample of sixteen (or 12.5%) Ainu men were found to belong to Haplogroup C3, which is the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among the indigenous populations of the Russian Far East and Mongolia; Hammer et al. (2006) tested another sample of four Ainu men and found that one of them belonged to haplogroup C3. Some researchers have speculated that this minority of Haplogroup C3 carriers among the Ainu may reflect a certain degree of unidirectional genetic influence from the Nivkhs, a traditionally nomadic people of northern Sakhalin Island and the adjacent mainland, with whom the Ainu have long-standing cultural interactions. According to Tanaka et al. (2004), their mtDNA lineages mainly consist of haplogroup Y (21.6%) and haplogroup M7a (15.7%). Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y is otherwise found mainly among Nivkhs, as well as at lower frequency among Koreans, Mongols, Tungusic peoples, Koryaks, Itelmens, and Austronesians; haplogroup M7a, on the other hand, is found elsewhere almost exclusively among Japanese, Ryukyuans, Koreans, and Waars of the Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, India. A recent reevaluation of cranial traits suggests that the Ainu resemble the Okhotsk more than they do the Jōmon. This agrees with the reference to the Ainu culture being a merger of Okhotsk and Satsumon cultures referenced above.

Some have speculated that the Ainu may be descendants of a prehistoric group of humans that also produced indigenous Australian peoples. In Steve Olson's book Mapping Human History, page 133, he describes the discovery of fossils dating back 10,000 years, representing the remains of the Jōmon, a group whose facial features more closely resemble those of the indigenous peoples of New Guinea and Australia. After a new wave of immigration, probably from the Korean Peninsula some 2,300 years ago, of the Yayoi people, the Jōmon were pushed into northern Japan. Genetic data suggest that modern Japanese are descended from both the Yayoi and the Jōmon.

Groundbreaking genetic mapping studies by Cavalli-Sforza have shown a sharp gradient in gene frequencies centered in the area around the Sea of Japan, and particularly in the Japanese Archipelago, that distinguishes these populations from others in the rest of eastern Asia and most of the American continent. This gradient appears as the third most important genetic movement (in other words, the third principal component of genetic variation) in Eurasia (after the "Great expansion" from the African continent, which has a cline centered in Arabia and adjacent parts of the Middle East, and a second cline that distinguishes the northern regions of Eurasia and particularly Siberia from regions to the south), which would make it consistent with the early Jōmon period, or possibly even the pre-Jōmon period.

 

 

HLA-B75

HLA-B75 (B75) is an HLA-B serotype. The serotype identifies certain B*15 gene-allele protein products of HLA-B. B75 is one of many split antigens of the broad antigen, B15. B75 (B*1502) is associated with a severe drug-induced skin condition in ethnic East Asians.

HLA B*1502 Frequencies

Population	Freq (%)
Philippines Ivatan	22.0
Taiwan Puyuma	18.0
China Guangxi Maonan	14.8
China Yunnan Lisu	12.3
Taiwan Tao	12.0
Singapore Chinese Han	11.6
China Guangzhou	11.0
Hong Kong Chinese	10.2
China Yunnan Nu	9.0
Singapore Riau Malay	8.4
Singapore Javanese Indonesians	8.2
Thailand (3)	8.2
China South Han	7.1
Singapore Thai	6.1
India Khandesh Pawra	6.0
Taiwan Minnan pop 1	5.9
India West Bhils	4.0
Taiwan Pazeh	3.6
China Guangdong Meizhou Han	3.5
China Qinghai Hui	2.7
Taiwan Hakka	2.7
Shijiazhuang Tianjian Han	2.4
China North Han	1.9
India Mumbai Marathas	1.9
India North Delhi	1.6
China Beijing	1.5
China Inner Mongolia	1.5
American Samoa	1.0
India North Hindus	1.0
Taiwan Siraya	1.0
Taiwan Tsou	1.0

 

 

HLA-A34

HLA-A34 (A34) is a human leukocyte antigen serotype within HLA-A serotype group.

A*3401 when found outside of Africa is primarily found in the South Asia, Austronesia and the South/Central part of the West Pacific Rim (WPR). It appears to have made it to Eastern Taiwan's indigenous tribes (Ami, Yami) but not more north of this region. It has not been detected in any sampling of Japan. Over most of the East Pacific Rim region were it is found it is limited to 1 or 2 common haplotypes in strong linkage disequilibrium. This indicates its presence in the WPR region is the result of recent migrations.

The A*3401 migration from Africa is supported by its presence in East Africa and South Africa and by current models of human migration, this allele was likely represented in the first wave of immigrants. However in areas were mixtures of these alleles are commonly found, Persian Gulf region and India, A*3401 is relatively uncommon, scarce, or absent. The exception is Saudi Arabia, in which A34 is at 2.8% and among Israeli Jews at 8.8%. Some reports that both A*3401 and A*3402 are in the region, but questionable whether these are perpetually maintained allele frequencies are simply recent migrants.

A*3402 is more frequently found in the west, it is found in Iberia and along the mediterranean, but its frequency is low, the exception may be in the Levant, but it is unclear whether this is A*3401 or A*3402.

A34-B Haplotypes: A34 is in strong linkage disequilibrium in many areas of the world, but particularly SE Asia and Oceania. The most prominent of these haplotypes is A34-Cw11(1)-B56. This haplotype is found from Western Australia to Taiwan to New Zealand indicating a recent genetic linkage between these peoples.

Another frequently found haplotype is the A34-B61 (A*3401:Cw*04:B*B4002) haplotype. This haplotype has a similar distribution as A34-B56.

These haplotypes indicate that long range/oversees migrations were taking place in Austronesias (late paleolithic) prehistory.

 

HLA A34-Cw11-B56
A*3401:Cw*0102:B*5601

	freq
Population	(%)
Ami (Indig. Taiwan)	19.9
Highlanders (PNG)	10.6
Maori (New Zealand)	5.6
Indigenous Australia	4.1
Puyuma (Indig. Taiwan)	4.0

 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

卑南族

卑南族（Puyuma）為台灣原住民族群之一，族群分佈在中央山脈以東，卑南溪以南的海岸地區，以及花東縱谷南方的平原上，主要居住於台東縣境內，屬於母系社會，人口約九千人。

 

起源傳說

• (石生)的傳說

具說祖先是由巨石裂開所生，發源於今台東太麻里鄉美和海岸附近的山坡地上，此系統包括知本村、建和村、泰安村、初鹿村、利嘉村等。知本村、建和村的卑南人還在此地立了一塊發祥地的紀念碑，並有石棚祭祀著渡海來台約三位先祖的名字，在每年的清明節，知本、建和的村民會到此祭拜。

• (竹生)的傳說

以南王里(現隸屬台東市)、檳朗村、寶桑(由南王分支出去)為主。根據南王長老口述，祖先是由竹子所生。起源傳說的不同與地理位置的差異，卑南八社在歷史的流光裡呈現了一些異。以知本為首的石生文化，因緊臨排灣、魯凱的聚落，文化上的表現與語言上的濁重音明顯地受到了他族的影響。接近阿美族的南王系統在語音的輕巧上與阿美族相近。

 

歷史

清康熙年間，以南王為首的卑南人，平定了朱一貴之亂的餘黨。因此被清廷冊封為「卑南大王」，並且賜予朝服，鄰近的阿美族、排灣族都要而其納貢、賦稅。是卑南族的全盛時期，也是族人至今津津樂道的光榮史蹟。

 

社會

卑南族的社會有兩個領導人物。一是男祭師(rahan)負責主持部落性的重要祭儀，一是領袖(ayawan)，由村子裡領導能力強的人來擔任，負責部落裡重大事情的協調者，亦是人獵祭、爭戰的領導人物。

目前男祭師依然沿續傳統的職責，在部落裡受人敬重。領袖ayawan則因現代行政體系的介入在各村的職權消長也有所不同。以南王為例，里長的職權有凌駕傳統領導人之趨勢，但長老群依然受敬重。建和則恰好相反，頭目的領導地位居高不下。有些村落的年輕人有感於傳統文化的式微，近年來極力鼓吹延續傳統命脈的活動，呈現了年輕人拉著老人往前跑的現象。不管任何形式的演變，族中長老的生活體驗與傳統智慧依然是族人諮詢的對象與精神支柱。

• 屬於母系社會(有幾點特質)

1. 婚姻上，男子以入贅女方家為原則。
2. 氏族姓氏的繼承以女子為主。
3. 財產的繼承是母傳女。
4. 祭祀權的管理與責任也是由母親方面的女子來承續。

然而這樣的習俗也隨著時代的改變而有所調適。以結婚為例，目前大都是從夫居住的父系社會的婚姻法則。孩子們的姓氏也以父親的姓氏為主，有些家庭則一半從父姓一半從母姓。

 

文化特質

• 斯巴達式的會所訓練。
• 精湛的刺繡手藝：

以十字繡法最普遍，人形舞蹈紋是卑南族特有的圖案。

• 戴花環的普遍性：

雖然不是只有卑南族才戴花環，但形制的一致性及花環所代表的男子成年意義是其他族群所沒有的。

• 巫術的盛行：

早期卑南族的巫術十分盛行，其他族群的人都懼怕三分。巫術又分為白巫與黑巫，白巫替人治病，黑巫施咒害人。目前卑南八社尚有多位祭師。光是南王就有二十幾位男、女巫師，負責部落性的祭儀。或為族人祈福趨邪。甚至有一位巫師開業服務，為人占卜、趨邪，解答人生疑惑，當然，服務的對象不僅止於卑南人，連漢人也前去卜問。

 

祭典

由於時代的變遷與地理位置的差異，卑南八社的祭典呈現了不同的風貌。

• 知本村：最重視七月中旬的收穫祭，為期三～七天。著名的勇士舞遊街祈福是其特色。一九三三年恢復年祭(一月一日)中的除喪活動，並重建會所制度。1996年恢復猴祭，目前致力於會所制度的重建，尤其偏重於青少年的成長及訓練。
• 南王村：

1. 收穫祭(muraHijavan)：在七月中旬舉行，又稱為海祭，在海邊往蘭嶼的方向遙祭帶小米種籽到人間的二位神祇，會後並在社區內舉辦摔角活動。摔角除了勇武的表現以外，族人也期望稻穗能像摔角的男人般挺立、結實。
2. 年祭(從十二月二十四日起至元月二日止)：是卑南八社對猴祭、大獵祭、聯合年祭的一系列活動的總稱，內容有：
   1. 青少年驅邪活動：十二月二十四日晚上全村的小孩赤裸上身，臉上塗抹炭灰，手拿芭蕉葉至各家戶驅除不淨，迎接新的一年來臨。
   2. 少年猴祭(mangamangayau)：舉辦時間在十二月二十五日。藉著刺猴培養少年的膽識及殺敵的氣概，由於動物保育猴子由草猴代替。猴祭意義演變成讓現代的青少年認識族群歷史與文化的一個媒介。
   3. 大獵祭(mangayau)：原意為年度狩獵、復仇獵首，可長達數個月，目前改為定點式(十二月二十七日至三十日)由長老主導在野地紮營抓田鼠。大獵祭回來的當天，村人在卑南新站前立凱旋門，全村婦女小孩盛裝列隊歡迎，並為長老們戴上花環，吟唱傳統古老的史詩(bailalao)、聚餐等一連串的活動，是溫馨感人的一天。
   4. 聯合年祭：(元月二日舉行)由八社輪流舉辦表演及競賽，是觀摩卑南八社文化的最好時機。

• 初鹿村：以七月的收穫祭及十二月底的年祭較受重視。其中收穫祭的盪鞦韆活動是一大特色。
• 檳榔村：以三月八日婦女除草完工的傳統節日最具特色，顯現了檳榔村婦女團隊組織的嚴謹。十二月底的年祭亦是主要祭典之一。
• 利嘉村：以十二月底的大獵祭為主。
• 泰安村：以十二月底的大獵祭為主。
• 寶桑村：以十二月底的大獵祭為主。
• 建和村：以十二月底的年祭為主。其中盪鞦韆是一大特色。在卑南八社中只有建和村與初鹿村保有此項活動，舉行時間不同。

 

知名人物

• 張惠妹：歌手 (Amei)。
• 陳建年：前原民會主委、前台東縣長。
• 高龍偉：職棒球員，投手，曾效力興農牛隊，現效力於統一獅隊，
• 陳瑩：立法委員，陳建年之女。
• 張惠春：歌手，張惠妹的親妹妹，目前退出演藝圈。
• 紀曉君：歌手。
• 陳建年：第一位得金曲獎最佳男演唱人的警察歌手。
• 黃美珍：參加超級星光大道II 的參賽者，亦是歌手
• 家家：歌手，紀曉君的妹妹。
• 孫大川：知名學者
• 胡德夫：歌手，原運成員.孫大川的表哥.父為卑南族.母為排灣族.
• 江明娟：超級偶像I的參賽者。

 

 

卑南鄉

卑南鄉位於台灣台東縣中部，北臨鹿野鄉、延平鄉，東北連東河鄉，東濱太平洋，西鄰屏東縣霧台鄉，南接台東市、太麻里鄉。

本鄉地處花東縱谷平原的南方，為中央山脈及海岸山脈所夾，約60%的面積為山坡地，有卑南溪、知本溪、利嘉溪等流經鄉境，氣候上屬熱帶季風氣候。鄉內居民以漢人為主，另有約35%的台灣原住民（卑南族、阿美族、魯凱族），產業以農業為主。近年來因知本溫泉而聲名大噪，成為新興的觀光勝地，觀光業大為蓬勃發展。

此地早期為原住民卑南族的勢力範圍，荷據時期即已稱雄東臺灣，荷蘭呼為卑瑪拉(Pimala)。清領時期劃為蕃地，嚴禁出入，有「卑南八社」之稱呼。

漢名「卑南」的來源有多種說法，較可信是由下賓朗社（Pinaski）轉音而來。原住民語則稱「Puyuma」，意為「獲得貢物最高位階的尊稱」，以紀念其偉大的頭目鼻那來(Pinara)。

1875年於此設置卑南廳，在1886年改為台東直隸州，前中研院院長胡適之父胡鐵花曾任知州事。日治時期在此設置卑南庄，隸屬台東廳台東郡。戰後成立卑南鄉。

1974年台東鎮欲升格為縣轄市，將此鄉卑南、南王、富崗等十餘村併入台東市，以湊合十萬人，因而形成「卑南」不在卑南鄉的奇特現象。

 

 

台東縣

台東縣位於台灣東南方，面積僅次於花蓮縣、南投縣，為台灣第三大縣。地理位置上，本縣位於北回歸線南方，東面朝太平洋，南面和西面與屏東縣、高雄縣以中央山脈為界，北面與花蓮縣為鄰。

由於位處熱帶氣候區且面山近海，台東縣自然資源相當豐富；不但境內保有多處自然文化保留區，各式特產：無論是海裡的柴魚或是平原上的釋迦，甚至是山上的茶葉、鳳梨、金針、洛神花等，無不名聞全國。另外，因為開發較晚，台東保留有全國最豐富的台灣原住民文化：縣治之內的阿美族、卑南族、魯凱族、布農族、排灣族、達悟族6族佔全縣人口比例三成以上，為全台灣最高。除此之外，本縣史前遺址的數量也是台灣之最。

在族群結構上，除原本定居於此的原住民外，其他居民皆為近150年陸續移居而來的移民後代。最早的漢人開拓者多直接來自於福建省，中華民國政府遷台後，部分榮民和外省人安排在此定居，八七水災後西部災民部分亦遷居於此，以及部分從六堆區域遷來的客家人。因為如此眾多族群在此定居繁衍，今天的台東成為一個多元族群文化社會。

台東縣的名人也不少，如：張惠妹、楊傳廣等人，由台東縣出身的明星也不少，約１０個或以上，大多以演藝人員和棒球人士、體育人士居多，而原住民就佔了一大半。世界知名的運動員楊傳廣、棒球世家陽家都是出自於此縣。

由於地型上的崎嶇和海運上的不便，直到19世紀中葉以前，台東都還是清朝政府眼中的化外之地，除少數逃犯外，多數百姓視入後山為畏途。

這樣的情形一直要到1874年牡丹社事件後才有所改變。飽受驚嚇的清廷在此之後派遣自強運動的重要推手 - 福建船政大臣沈葆楨赴台經略後山，將今日中央山脈以東一帶劃為卑南廳，至此整個東部開發史開啟了第一頁。

有鑒於東部對外聯絡艱難，沈葆楨由北至南連開數條道路橫貫台灣本島，自此打開東部對外的聯繫。在開路的同時，沈葆楨從福建招來的移民也搭乘一艘艘的帆船登陸台東。今天的台東市寶桑里一帶是東部最早的漢人移民據點，今天依然能藉著參拜全台東最早的天后宮，來體會漢人移民渡海而來的艱辛。
1886年台灣建省，將今天的花蓮縣與台東縣一帶劃為台東直隸州，州治設在今日的台東市區。

 

 

卑南遺址

大約在一百多年前，日本的學者鳥居龍藏來到台東卑南遺址，留下了最早的照片和記錄。月形石柱的價值，在於它所代表的象徵和意義，因為它正是卑南文化千年故事的起點。

 

卑南遺址，位於台灣台東縣卑南山東南端的山麓，是屬於台灣東部之新石器時代卑南文化的一個代表性遺址。根據考古學家的推斷，該遺址存在的年代大約是距今5300至2300年前，其中又以距今3500至2300年前最為興盛。卑南遺址的面積超過30萬平方公尺，是目前台灣所發現最大的史前聚落。此外，卑南遺址也出土了許多石板棺以及棺內精美的陪葬品，是環太平洋與東南亞地區規模最大的石板棺墓葬群遺址。

目前，卑南遺址不但是中華民國內政部文化建設委員會所指定的國定遺址，同時在該處也設有卑南文化公園，是台灣第一個考古遺址公園。

 

遺址挖掘簡史

卑南遺址最早的考古紀錄是由日治初期的日本籍人類學者鳥居龍藏所開始，他曾為卑南遺址的石柱拍攝兩幀照片，其拍攝時間可能約在1896年。而鹿野忠雄則是第一位將卑南遺址當作考古遺址加以研究的學者，在鹿野忠雄1930年發表的文章中曾敘述在卑南遺址所在處有數不清的板岩石柱豎立於地表上。1945年時，金關丈夫和國分直一首次對最大立石的周圍開始進行試掘，並發現埋藏於遺跡地底的陶器以及住屋遺跡。

二次大戰結束之後，雖然有不少台灣學者陸續前來卑南遺址進行調查，但都未曾做過發掘。1980年，南迴鐵路卑南新站（今台東站）開工，將地下沉睡數千年的遺構、遺物大量揭露，並造成嚴重破壞，而引起輿論及各方的高度關切。台東縣政府遂委託台灣大學考古人類學系的宋文薰、連照美兩位教授，進行搶救考古。搶救考古工作共進行13梯次，前後長達9年，成果十分豐碩。無論是發掘面積、出土石棺及遺物數量皆是台灣考古史的空前紀錄，尤其是大量精美玉器重現於世，令人驚艷。

 

卑南文化

卑南文化主要分佈於台灣東部的海岸山脈和花東縱谷南段的河階、海階或山區的緩坡地。重要遺址除了卑南遺址之外，還包括掃叭、富山、漁場、漁場南、東河Ⅰ、東河Ⅲ等其他地方。在這些遺址都出土了大量鐮刀、石刀等農具，而且器型也有大型化的趨勢，可見農耕更形發展、也更重要了。至於海岸地區的遺址則出土豐富的網墜、尖器等漁業用具，又顯示對海洋資源的依賴。

卑南遺址聚落描述以及出土器物

卑南遺址的範圍相當大，面積超過30萬平方公尺。不但聚落龐大，而且建築物成排分佈，格局嚴謹，已經是頗具組織的社會結構。其住屋略成南北軸向，遙指都蘭山。每棟家屋坐西朝東，遠望溪流與海洋。家屋主體為長方形平面，東西長11.5公尺。南北寬5.5公尺。以板岩石板、大漂石為牆基，木材為柱，屋牆、屋頂葺以竹架、茅草。屋前以石板舖成方形前庭，屋後有橢圓形砌石圈，用來儲存食物及大陶罐。聚落中還有零星分佈的高架榖倉，支柱上配有防鼠板。

狩獵與農耕是卑南文化人的主要生業。他們在山林間獵野豬，在丘陵、平原捕梅花鹿。種植的穀物有旱稻、小米，以「山田燒墾」方式開闢田地。出土的農耕工具相當多，有墾地伐木的石鋤、石斧，收割的石刀、石鎌，舂榖的石杵等。狩獵的主要工具則有石矛、石鏃等。聚落雖然瀕臨卑南大溪，但村民並不擅長捕漁，魚類只是輔助的食物。

長期定居促使族人發展出各類工藝技術。除了農具、獵具等石器外，陶器是日常生活最普遍的用具之一，主要用來盛水、儲物及烹煮。陶器通常是手製，偶而使用轉盤整修技術，以露天方式燒成，火侯較低。外表以橙色素麵為主，少有紋飾。主要器形有罐、缽、小口瓶等容器，以及陶紡輪、陶槌、陶勺、陶匙等工具，也有少許裝飾品如陶珠、陶環，隨葬品如陶偶等。

精緻的玉器最能顯現族人審美觀與工藝技術能力。包括玉與似玉材質製成的頭飾、耳飾、頸飾、胸飾、腕飾、臂飾，以及一些非實用性的武器、工具，式樣繁多，風格別具。造形上，以玦形耳飾最富於變化。其中人獸形玦造形可作為代表，已被國立台灣史前文化博物館選為該館的館徽。這些玉器多為族人平常的裝飾品，人過世後則當作隨葬品長埋地底。從這些玉器的精細程度來判斷，很可能已經有人專門從事玉石飾品製作，並以玉製器物來交易。

此外，有數以千計的石板棺埋在卑南遺址的建築物底部，成帶狀分佈，而且與地上建築物的座向相同，顯然意義非比尋常。棺內更有豐富又精美的陪葬玉器、陶器，可見當時人已有靈魂觀念，相信死後另有世界，並且有相沿成俗的喪葬儀禮。出土的家屋與墓葬上下緊密交疊，成為卑南遺址的一大特色。

該遺址也發現了被獵頭的無頭遺骸，很可能是因為族群擴張領域、爭奪自然資源，開始出現部落間的爭戰。 　

 

遺址公園的誕生

基於卑南遺址的重要性，宋文薰教授於1982年即建議就地興建野外博物館。1988年，卑南遺址被中華民國內政部列為國家一級古蹟。1991年，中央政府決定將遺址現地規劃為「卑南文化公園」。2002年8月，位於卑南遺址附近台東市康樂車站的國立台灣史前文化博物館首先開幕。4個月後，卑南文化公園遊客中心正式對外開放，台灣第一個遺址公園於焉誕生。

整個卑南文化公園的規劃理念，是將遺址視作一個蒼穹博物館。因此，該公園的一個特色，就是可以在園區內看到現場的考古發掘展示。

卑南文化公園的地址是台東市文化公園路200號。

 

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Artist: Eky (林益千)

 

Sculptures by Eky ( 硬硬春之戀系列男女像 約2002)

(盧梅芬攝; photo from 台灣原住民當代藝術之觀察)

 

 

* 素‧原‧真2007台東美術館樸素藝術簡報

Excerpt: 林益千具有卑南與阿美族的雙重文化血統，曾擔任過棒球、壘球裁判。閑餘經常打獵、潛水捕魚。年輕時跟隨阿美族父親參與亞士都飯店的原民雕刻三年，看過朱銘的作品後開始思索如何跳脫傳統原住民木雕的巢臼。 53 歲肝病過世。

當林益千將木雕視為藝術創作行為時，他一方面想掙脫傳統原民雕塑的圖騰制約；另一方面則想透過簡潔有力的刀法，表現個人化的生命思維。 90 年代開始有個人作品發表，首開台東原民木雕的創作風氣，因此台東的年輕原民雕刻者尊稱林益千為「益師」。

 

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Map of Taiwanese Aboriginal Tribes