INDIAN
Excerpts from Wikipedia.org
The Demographics of India are overall remarkably diverse. India's population of approximately 1.136 billion people (estimate for September 1, 2007 based on interpolating on estimates by Census Bureau of India for March 1 of 2007 and 2008) comprises approximately one-sixth of the world's population. India is expected to overcome China by 2030 and will then be the most populated country in the world. India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as a language isolate (the Nihali languagespoken in parts of Maharashtra). Further complexity is lent by the great variation that occurs across this population on social parameters such as income and education. Only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, cultural and genetic diversity of the nation of India.
Unlike the USA, UK, and Australian Censuses, the national Census of India does not recognize racial or ethnic groups within India but recognizes many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes. Organizations and individuals not affiliated with India's national census have classified India into racial/ethnic groups. These racial and ethnic groups are debated. According to the Joshua Project, there are 2,334 ethnic groups in India. The Indian people are descended from more or less all of the peoples that historically settled the subcontinent, including the Caucasoid groups of Indo-Aryans, Iranians, Bactrians, Europeans, Greeks, Hepthalites, Arabs, the Australoid Austro-Asiatics and Dravidians, the Mongoloid Tibeto-Burmans, Kushans, Turks, Mughals, and a few African Siddis exist as well.
It should be noted that Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman are linguistic terms and cannot be directly taken as ethnic terms. It simply means a speaker of a language belonging to a particular linguistic family. The speakers of these languages descend from a plethora of different ethnic groups that eventually adopted one or more set of languages. The imprint of each of these groups can be found in at least some small segments of the population, but at the same time over a long period of time these superficial differences in appearances have blurred to a great extent. The framework of the culture of the Indian people comes from these various peoples who contributed to Indian civilization as it is today.
According to population geneticist L.L. Cavalli-Sforza of Stanford, whose work was done in the 1980s almost all Indians are genetically similar to Caucasian, but Lewontin rejects the label Caucasian. Cavalli-Sforza found that Indians are about three times closer to West Europeans than to East Asians. Dr. Eduardas Valaitis, in 2006, found that India is genetically closest to East and Southeast Asians with little genetic similarity to Europeans; that said he also found that India could be considered very distinct from other regions. Genetic anthropologist Stanley Marion Garn considered in the 1960s that the entirety of the Indian Subcontinent to be a "race" genetically distinct from other populations. Others, such as Lynn B. Jorde and Stephen P. Wooding, claim South Indians are genetic intermediaries between Europeans and East Asians.
mtDNA
The largest Indian mtDNA haplogroups are M, R and U. With the possible exception of haplogroup U, that is shared with Western Eurasian populations, they seem to be native to South Asia.
Haplogroup M, that comprises c. 60% of Indian mtDNA, is actually a macro-haplogroup with many subgroups still poorly studied; the South Asian clades of M are mostly different from the East Asian ones.
Y-DNA: Haplogroup R1a1
In India initial studies with limited samples observed a correlation between the Brahmin caste and the R1a haplogroup which was consistent with an Indo-Aryan migration from Central Asia, in line with earlier suggestions. The frequency gradients of the haplogroup, falling off eastward across Siberia to the Altai mountains and southward into India, were held to perfectly reflect the inferred migrations of the (pre-)Proto-Indo-Iranians and Indo-Iranians during the period 3000 to 1000 BC. The northern migration theory is also supported by the dating of the haplogroup.
Studies of India scholars showed the R1a lineage forms around 35–45% among all the castes in North Indian population and the Badagas of the Nilgiris making the association with the Brahmin caste more vague. A further study examined R1a1 in South Indian tribals and Dravidian population groups more closely, and questioned the concept of its Indo-Iranian origin. Most recently Sengupta et al. (2006) have confirmed R1a's diverse presence including even Indian tribal and lower castes (the so-called untouchables) and populations not part of the caste system. From the diversity and distinctiveness of microsatellite Y-STR variation they conclude that there must have been an independent R1a1 population in India dating back to a much earlier expansion than the Indo-Aryan migration.
According to Sengupta et al., R1* is virtually absent in Southeast and East Asia.
Distribution of R1a and R1b, after McDonald (2005), Haplogroup Maps by J. D. McDonald
Indian Diaspora
The most significant historical emigration from India was that of the Roma. Around the eleventh century, Central Asian invaders in the subcontinent took many Indians as captives to Afghanistan. These people then went to Iran and other parts of the Middle East as wandering court musicians. They gradually became a class of their own, wandering to Europe, where they were known as the Gypsies (based on the legend of their origins lying in Egypt).
Another major emigration from the subcontinent was to South East Asia. It started as a military expedition by Hindu, and later Buddhist, kings of South India and resulted in the settlers' merging with the local society. The influence of Indian culture is still strongly felt in South East Asia, especially in places like Bali (in Indonesia). However, in such cases, it is not reasonable to apply the label 'PIO' to the descendants of emigrants from several centuries back, especially since intermixture is so great as to negate the value of such nomenclature in this context.
During the nineteenth century and until the end of the Raj, much of the migration that happened was to other colonies under the indenture system. The major destinations, in chronological order, were Mauritius, British Guyana, the West Indies (Trinidad and Jamaica), Fiji and East Africa. There was also a small amount of free emigration of skilled labourers and professionals to some of these countries in the twentieth century. The event that triggered this diaspora was the Slavery Abolition Act passed by the British Parliament on August 1, 1834, which freed the slave labour force throughout the British colonies. This left many of the plantations devoid of adequate work force as the newly freed slaves left to take advantage of their newly found freedom. This resulted in an extreme shortage of labour throughout many of the British colonies which was resolved by a massive importation of workers engaged under contracts of indentured servitude.
An unrelated system involved recruitment of workers for the tea plantations of the neighbouring British colonies of Sri Lanka and Burma and the rubber plantations of British Malaya (now Malaysia and Singapore).
Religion in India
The religious demographics of the Republic of India show a predominance of Hinduism, accounting for 80% of the population. The second largest religion is Islam (13%).
The other natively Indian religions, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism taken together account for less than 3%. About 2% of Indians adhere to Christianity. Zoroastrianism and Judaism have a centuries-long history in India; each has several thousand Indian adherents.
More than nine-tenths of Indians state that religion plays a key role in their lives. Though inter-religious marriage is not widely practiced, Indians are generally tolerant of other religions and retain a secular outlook. Inter-community clashes have never found widespread support in the social mainstream, and it is generally perceived that its causes are political rather than ideological in nature. The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith.
The Saint Thomas Christians are a group of Christians from the Malabar coast (now Kerala) in South India, who follow Syriac Christianity. The different groups and denominations within the St Thomas Christians together form the Nasrani people. Their tradition goes back to the very beginnings of first century Christian thought and the seven churches that are believed to have been established by St. Thomas the Apostle. They are popularly known as Syrian Christians in view of the Syriac (classical form of Aramaic) liturgy used in church services since the early days of Christianity in India.
Indian Maritime History
Indian maritime history dates back to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus for India to later re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and later the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. The later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilisation as far as the islands of Indonesia to the east, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west.
Several Indian or East Asian products (e.g. Cinnamon, Cassia, Nard) are mentioned in the Bible (as early as the time of the Exodus) and by Sappho. Indian products were already known in the mythical Punt and Ophir. Cinnamon and Cassia are spices that originated from China and South-East Asia, and South India was probably along the trade routes for these products.
Ancient mariners from the Kalinga empire, which roughly corresponds to modern Orissa, were called Sadhabas. They used ships called Boitas to travel to distant lands such as Bali, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, in Indonesia, and to Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Persia, China, Greece and Africa to carry out trade and for cultural expansion. The Chilka lake in those days served as a very large dockyard crowded with ships from vaious countries. The Kalinga empire was instrumental in spreading Hinduism, Buddhism, Indic languages, culture and architecture in Indochina. The Borobudur temple in Indonesia contains a sculpure of an Oriya Boita.
A few empires in southern India, notably the Cholas and the Satavahanas have noteworthy maritime legacies.
The Chola empire made territorial expansions into the Malayan archipelago, during the reign of Raja Raja Chola. The Srivijaya empire was heavily influenced by the Cholas, politically and socially. In 1025 AD, Rajendra Chola invaded the Srivijayas, and occupied the capital city, Kadeh, for several years. The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy in Indochina. Buddhist temples in that region show a very clear Dravidian influence. The Cholas also conducted diplomacy with China, during the Song Dynasty. The Chola empire also made deep inroads into countries located west of India.The Satavahanas forayed deep into Indochina and the Malayan peninsula during the 1st century AD.
Orissa
Orissa is a littoral state of India with a long coastline. The coastal alluvial plain is inhabited by the non-tribal speakers of the Oriya language. The interior, inhabited largely by the indigenous people known as Adivasis is hilly and mountainous. Orissa has a population of 32 million. About 87% of the population live in the villages and one third of the rural population does not own any land other than homesteads. 25% of Orissa's Population is Tribal.
The official language of the state, spoken by the majority of the people is Oriya. Oriya belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family, and is closely related to Bengali and Assamese. A few tribal languages belonging to the Dravidian and Munda language families are still spoken by the Adivasis (original inhabitants) of the state. The state has a very opulent cultural heritage, one of the richest in India.
History of Orissa
Orissa has a history spanning a period of over 3000 years. The history of Orissa is in many ways atypical from that of the northern plains and many of the common generalizations that are made about Indian history do not seem to apply to the Oriya region. The word Oriya is an anglicised version of Odia which itself is a modern name for the Odra or Udra tribes that inhabited the central belt of modern Orissa. Orissa has also been the home of the Kalinga and Utkal nations that played a particularly prominent role in the region's history, and one of the earliest references to the ancient Kalingas appears in the writings of Vedic chroniclers. In the 6th C. BC, Vedic Sutrakara Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as being beyond the Vedic fold, indicating that Brahminical influences had not yet touched the land. Unlike some other parts of India, tribal customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping political structures and cultural practices right up to the 15th C. when Brahminical influences triumphed over competing traditions and caste differentiation began to inhibit social mobility and erode what had survived of the ancient republican tradition.
A major turning point in world history took place in Orissa. The famous Kalinga War that led emperor Ashoka to embrace non-violence and the teachings of Buddha was fought here in 261 BC. Ashoka's military campaign against Kalinga was one of the bloodiest in Mauryan history on account of the fearless and heroic resistance offered by the Kalingas to the mighty armies of the expanding Mauryan empire. Perhaps on account of their unexpected bravery, emperor Ashoka was compelled to issue two edicts specifically calling for a just and benign administration in Kalinga. Later on, Asoka was instrumental in spreading Buddhist philosophy all over Asia.
Kalinga was a major seafaring nation that controlled and traded with most of the sea routes in the Bay of Bengal. For several centuries, a substantial part of South Asia & Southeast Asia was under its cultural influence. The temple at Angkor Wat is a fine example of Oriya-influenced Indian architecture. Some parts of Southern and South Eastern Asia such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Vietnam and Thailand were colonized by people from Orissa. In Malaysia, Indians are still referred as Kalings because of this. Many illustrious Sri Lankan kings such as Nisanka Malla and Parakarama Bahu claim Kalinga origin. The king who destroyed the Sinhalese Buddhist control of Northern Sri Lanka and established a Hindu Kingdom in Jaffna was known as Kalinga Magha. One theory holds that the name of the country "Siam" for Thailand is derived from Oriya/Sanskrit Shyamadesha. The Angkor Wat in Cambodia is Orissan, with local variations. Bali in Indonesia still retains its Orissan-influenced Hindu heritage.
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